tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-39497615342003953902024-03-12T23:19:25.841+00:00The Space of ReasonsPhilosophical Reflections on Reasons for Belief, Intention and ActionAVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.comBlogger231125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-61465984750581917062019-07-19T14:21:00.000+01:002019-08-15T12:13:25.952+01:00Palmira’s Objection to Friedman<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">In his paper, “Inquiry and the Doxastic Attitudes”, Michele
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proposed attitude “hypothesis”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I agree
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normative and functional profile he ascribes to hypotheses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, I take issue with what Palmira
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Jane Friedman:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">(<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">BICON</b>)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Necessarily: One is in an inquiring state of mind about some
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Palmira takes as his point of departure the observation that
inquiry often involves three distinct stages:</span></span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Three-stage model of inquiry</span></span></i> </blockquote>
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<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">One is open-minded about how to answer the question <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>.</span></span> </li>
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">One is inclined to answer <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> in a given way while taking the question to be still open.</span></span> </li>
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">One closes <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>.</span></span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span></li>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">In both stages 1 and 2, a certain question, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>, is regarded as open by the inquiring
agent. A question, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>, is open for
some agent, S, just in case S does not believe or know that some proposition, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b>, constitutes a complete answer to </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>.</span><span style="font-size: large;">
</span><span style="font-size: large;">What distinguishes stage 1 from stage 2 is that in the latter, the
inquiring agent takes some particular answer to </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> to be more likely to be true than all competing alternative
answers.</span><span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">Hence, while in stage 1, an
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in on a particular answer to a question one takes to be open for the purpose of
engaging in more narrowly constrained investigation into said answer that
Palmira identifies with the attitude of hypothesizing.</span><span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">Moreover, by Palmira’s lights, the shift from
stage 1 to stage 2 of inquiry is marked by a shift from suspending </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> to hypothesizing </span><b><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i><span style="font-size: large;">,
where the expression “</span><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i>” means that some
proposition </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b> is a complete answer
to </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> </span> <span style="font-size: large;">In sum, Palmira insists that the distinction
between stages 1 and 2 of inquiry is best captured by saying that while in
stage 1 one has the attitude of suspending </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>,
in stage 2 one has the attitude of hypothesizing </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">This brings us to Palmira’s criticism of (BICON).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(BICON) predicts that the inquiring agent
would be suspended at both stages of her inquiry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This follows from the fact that (BICON)
states that being in an inquiring frame of mind towards <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> entails that one is suspended about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since both stages 1 and 2
involves being in an inquiring frame of mind towards a question, it follows
from (BICON) that both stages 1 and 2 entail that one is suspended about that
question.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Palmira puts the objection as
follows: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">Importantly,
(BICON) contains an answer to the focal question of this paper: since being in
an inquiring state of mind towards a given matter just is being suspended about
it, and since one is in such an inquiring state of mind at both stages of open
inquiry, it follows that one just is suspended at both stages of open inquiry.
(p. 5)</span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">Hence, according to Palmira, (BICON) does not leave room for
the idea that stages 1 and 2 of inquiry implicate different doxastic attitudes:
suspending and hypothesizing, respectively. This is Palmira’s first line of
criticism.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">His second line of criticism
is that (BICON) runs into what he describes as the <i>Unity of Inquiry Problem</i>. <i> </i></span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">This second line of criticism begins with the observation that the
inquiring agent is disposed to make different inquisitive moves during stages 1
and 2.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">For example, suppose I am
considering the following question:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: Where did life on earth come from?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">During stage 1, my investigation may focus on figuring out
what are some of the candidate answers to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This initial period of investigation may
culminate in my thinking that there are at least three equally likely answers
to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1<sup>Q1</sup>:
Life on earth originated from non-life.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2<sup>Q1</sup>:
Life on earth came from some other planet.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3<sup>Q1</sup>:
Life on earth was created by an intelligent designer.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Suppose that after further investigation I come to regard <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>1<sup>Q1</sup> as being the most
likely answer to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At that point, I would have transitioned from
stage 1 to stage 2 of my inquiry into <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Plausibly, my investigation will no longer be
concerned with figuring out what are the candidate answers to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1, as was the case during the first
stage of my inquiry into <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, my investigation will now be
concerned with the evidence for and against life on earth originating from
non-life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">According to Palmira, the defender of (BICON) can only
accommodate the above shift in the focus of my investigation by holding that
the question I am suspended about has also shifted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whereas I was initially suspended about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1, I am now suspended about something
along the lines of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>2:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: Did life on earth originate from
non-life?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Hence, Palmira insists that (BICON) implies that at the
different stages of inquiry the inquiring agent is suspended about different
questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, this would undermine
the idea that the inquiry I am engaged in is a single unified activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, since (BICON) implies that I am
inquiring about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1 only if I am
suspended about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1, the fact that
during the second stage of my inquiry I am suspended about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>2 rather than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1 implies
that I am no longer inquiring into <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here is the objection in Palmira’s own words:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">[I]f
we accepted the idea that one holds an attitude of suspended judgement at both
the first and the second stage of the inquiry, we would not be able to capture
the unity of subject-matter of the inquiry one is pursuing, for the content of
the inquiring state of mind would change across stages and there is no other
way to specify which [subject-matter of inquiry] is at stake. This is the Unity
of Inquiry Problem. (</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">Palmira, 2018:
6).</span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">While I agree with Palmira that (BICON) should be rejected</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype", serif;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">,
I find his objections to the left-to-right side of (BICON) unconvincing.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">Let us call the left-to-right side of (BICON)—i.e., the
claim that being in an inquiring frame of mind entails suspension—the </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">inquirer-as-suspender thesis</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">Palmira’s first line of criticism is meant to
show that the inquirer-as-suspender thesis does not leave room for the
suggestion that stages 1 and 2 of inquiry implicates different doxastic
attitudes; suspending </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">1 and
hypothesizing </span><b style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">P</b><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">1</span><sup style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif;">Q1</sup><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">, respectively.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">However, this criticism only gets off the
ground if we assume that being in an inquiring frame of mind towards </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> at some time, </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">t</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">, entails that suspending </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> is the only </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">-related doxastic
attitude one has at </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">t</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">However, this is not what the inquirer-as-suspender
thesis claims.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">What the inquirer-as-suspender
thesis claims is that being in an inquiring frame of mind towards </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> at </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">t</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">
entails that suspending </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> be among
the set of doxastic attitudes one has at </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">t</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;">Whether or not the set of attitudes in
question is one that only has suspending </span><i style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: x-large;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype", serif; font-size: large;"> as a member is a matter about which the inquirer-as-suspender thesis is
entirely silent.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Moreover, the claim that suspending <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">only</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>-related attitude one may have when one
is inquiring about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> is one Friedman
explicitly rejects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By her lights,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>suspension accompanies (and is perhaps even a
pre-requisite for) every other inquiring attitude.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Hence,</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"> Friedman is open to the
possibility of an inquiring agent having other </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>-related attitudes alongside suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> at a given point in time.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;">This
means that if Palmira wishes to deny that an agent may rationally suspend </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> at some time, <i>t</i>, and also hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> at time, he will need to provide us with some positive grounds for thinking
that these two attitudes in particular are incompatible.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Palmira regards hypothesizing as a
doxastic attitude.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">It may therefore be
argued that simultaneously suspending and hypothesizing violates the rational
prohibition against inconsistent doxastic attitudes. According to the present
suggestion, suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> entails that
one has a doxastic attitude of committed neutrality with respect to </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, insofar as hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> entails treating one possible answer to </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> as more plausible than all other potential answers, hypothesizing is a doxastic
attitude that is not neutral with respect to </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Hence, an agent that
simultaneously suspends </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> and
hypothesizes </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> has
conflicting doxastic attitudes, or at least so the objection goes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, the preceding line of argument
trades on an equivocation.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">There are two
distinct ways in which the expression “doxastic attitude” has been used in the literature.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Sometimes, it used narrowly to refer to the
attitudes of believing, disbelieving, and suspending.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Call this usage of the expression “doxastic
attitude” <i>DA-Narrow</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, at other times, the expression “doxastic
attitude” is employed to refer more broadly to all attitudes that display a mind-to-world
direction of fit, including assuming, supposing, imagining, and hypothesizing.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Call this broader usage <i>DA-Wide</i>. <i> </i></span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">When Palmira says that hypothesizing is a doxastic
attitude, he clearly has DA-Wide in mind.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, the prohibition against inconsistent doxastic attitudes only
applies to DA-Narrow.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">For example, it is
common for a philosopher who believes </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b> to assume (for the sake of reductio argumentation) that not-</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Although the philosopher’s belief and assumption are inconsistent, we
certainly would not regard her as irrational for assuming something inconsistent
with what she believes.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Why not?</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Because assuming </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b> does not entail that one is rationally committed to the truth of </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Hence, one may assume not-</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b> without violating one’s rational commitment to the truth of </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">The upshot is that the prohibition against inconsistent doxastic
attitudes does not apply to DA-Wide.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">The salient question, then, is not
whether an agent’s doxastic attitudes, understood in terms of DA-Wide, line up
but rather whether an agent’s rational commitments line up.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">We must therefore ask if hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> entails that one is rationally committed to the truth of </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">The answer is clearly no.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">After all, if hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> entailed being committed to </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i>, then hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> at t would entail that </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> is settled
for one at t and that one was therefore not engaged in inquiry into <i>Q</i></span><i style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype", serif; font-size: x-large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">at t.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">In sum, holding that hypothesizing entails a rational commitment to the
truth of </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> would
undermine its status as a penultimate stage of inquiry.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">At best, hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> entails being committed to </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> being more likely to be
true than not.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, I may hold that
a proposition is more likely than not to be true and yet suspend about whether
it is true.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">For example, Suppose the
national polls all predict that Trump has a 70% chance of losing the upcoming United
States presidential election. </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">I may
consistently believe that it is more likely than not that Trump will lose (based
on my available evidence) and yet suspend judgement about whether he would
lose.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Consider: during the 2016 presidential
campaign, most national polls placed Trump’s chances of losing to Hillary
Clinton between 70% and 99%, and projected that she would be the clear winner
in states like Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, both of which ultimately went to
Trump.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">As the eventual 2016 election
results illustrate, sometimes the less likely outcome, given the available
evidence, is the one that is ultimately realized.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Recognizing this fact, there is nothing
inconsistent about believing some outcome to be more likely than not (based on
one’s available evidence) and yet deciding to remain agnostic about whether it
will obtain.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype", serif; text-indent: 0.25in;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">The upshot is that even if hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> entails a rational commitment to </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> being more likely to be
true than not, it does not follow that it is rationally impermissible to
suspend </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> at </span><i style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype", serif; font-size: x-large; text-indent: 0.25in;">t</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> and hypothesize </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> at </span><i style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype", serif; font-size: x-large; text-indent: 0.25in;">t</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Moreover,
Friedman’s rationale for holding that suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> and believing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium; text-indent: 0px;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i> are rationally incompatible is that the former entails treating </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> as open while the latter entails
treating </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i style="text-indent: 0px;">Q</i> as settled or closed.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, insofar as hypothesizing is an
inquiring attitude, it does not entail having a settled position on some question.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">This means that Friedman’s rationale for
holding that suspending and believing are incompatible is missing in the case
of hypothesizing.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">The upshot is that
there is nothing on Friedman’s account of the relationship between suspension
and inquiry that prevents us from saying that an inquiring agent suspends <i>Q</i>1</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> at some time <i>t</i></span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> and also hypothesizes </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1 </sup></span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">at <i>t</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Nor does Palmira supply any other compelling rationale for thinking that
suspending and hypothesizing are incompatible.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">This means that the defender of the inquirer-as-suspender thesis remains
entitled to say that the inquiring agent suspends <i>Q</i>1</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> at both stages 1 and 2, and that at stage 2 she also
hypothesizes </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1</sup> alongside suspending <i>Q</i>1</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Indeed, the defender of the
inquirer-as-suspender thesis may insist that it is the fact that the inquiring
agent not only suspends </span><i style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype", serif; font-size: x-large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Q</i><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">1, but also
hypothesizes </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1</sup>, that
distinguishes stage 2 from stage 1.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">The
upshot is that Palmira’s charge that the defender of the inquirer-as-suspender
thesis is unable to register the difference between stages 1 and 2 in terms of
the doxastic attitudes each stage implicates ultimately flounders.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">This brings us to Palmira’s second line of criticism of the inquirer-as-suspender
thesis; namely, that it gives rise to the Unity of Inquiry Problem. Once it is granted that an agent may
simultaneously suspend <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i> and
hypothesize <b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;">P</span></b><i style="font-size: medium;"><sup><span style="font-size: x-small;">Q</span></sup></i>, there is no need for the defender of the inquirer-as-suspender
thesis to mark the shift from stage 1 to stage 2 in terms of the shift from
suspending <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1 and suspending <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Instead, the defender of the inquirer-as-suspender thesis may claim that
at both stages of inquiry, the agent suspends <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Q</i>1 and that the difference between stages 1 and 2 is to be
explained in terms of the fact that hypothesizing <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>1<sup>Q1</sup> is absent in the former stage and present in the latter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Admittedly, the defender of the inquirer-as-suspender
thesis is committed to saying that at whatever point I adopt an inquiring frame
of mind towards <i>Q</i>2</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">, I am also
suspended about </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, it is uncontroversial that an agent
may suspend two different questions at the same time.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">For example, I may simultaneously suspend
judgement about where life on earth came from and about whether life on earth
originated from non-life.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Hence, the
defender of the inquirer-as-suspender thesis may hold that during stage 1, the
inquiring agent only suspends </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1, and
that during stage 2, they come to suspend </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2 in addition to suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">On the present suggestion, what unifies
stages 1 and 2 as stages of a single instance of inquiry is that both primarily
involve suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, during stage 2, the agent suspends a
secondary question, </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2, in the service
of answering the primary question, </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">In sum, the agent comes to suspend </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2 in order to facilitate her continued
inquiry into </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1, about which she is
also suspended.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">The upshot of the preceding analysis is
a hybrid view of the second stage of inquiry that includes both hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1</sup> and suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">
</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">According to the view currently on offer, what unifies both stages 1 and
2 as stages of inquiry into a single question is the fact that both stages
implicate suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, once I settle on </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1</sup> as the most likely
answer to </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1, my inquiring enters a
new phase. This new phase is marked by the adoption of the attitude of
hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1</sup>.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">Once this hypothesis has been adopted, this
initiates a sub-inquiry into </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2 as
part of the overarching inquiry into </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">This sub-inquiry implicates its own instance
of suspension—i.e., suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">However, both hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1</sup> and suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2 are attitudes I adopt alongside my
suspension of </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1 and are adopted in
the service of the inquiry facilitated by my suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;">In sum, the defender of the
inquirer-as-suspender thesis is both able to mark the shift from stages 1 to 2
of inquiry—i.e., in terms of the shift from merely suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1 to hypothesizing </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><b style="text-indent: 0px;">P</b><span style="text-indent: 0px;">1</span><sup style="text-indent: 0px;">Q1</sup> and suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>2,
in addition to suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1—while
also avoiding the Unity of Inquiry Problem—i.e., by holding that both stages of
my inquiry into </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1 involve suspending </span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.25in;"><i>Q</i>1.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">See and cf. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Friedman 2017: 302.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">See and cf. Friedman 2019: 303.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Archer (forthcoming)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">See Palmira (2018: 5).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3949761534200395390#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "cambria" , serif;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This comports with my earlier
observation that suspending judgement is the appropriate response to one’s
recognition that the available evidence is inconclusive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is not merely the appropriate response to the
recognition that the available evidence equally supports P and not-P.</span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">References:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Archer,
Avery (forthcoming). Agnosticism, Inquiry, and Unanswerable Questions. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Disputatio</i>.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Archer,
Avery. (2018). Wondering About What You Know. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Analysis</i> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">78</b>(4): 596-604.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Friedman,
Jane. (2017). Why Suspend Judging? <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nous</i>,
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">51</b>(2): 302-326.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Friedman, Jane. (2013a). Question-Directed
Attitudes. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophical Perspectives</i>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">27</b>(1): 145-174.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Friedman,
Jane. (2013b). Suspended Judgment. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophical
Studies</i> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">162</b>(2):165-181.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Palmira,
Michele. (2018). Inquiry and the Doxastic Attitudes. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Synthese</i>.</span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-41627643925421126192018-12-27T17:31:00.002+01:002019-06-20T17:57:01.216+01:00An Objection to Lord’s Reasons Responsiveness View<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Mention"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Smart Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">In
his 2018 volume, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Importance of Being
Rational</i>, Errol Lord defends the thesis that “what it is to be rational is
to correctly respond to possessed objective normative reasons” (p. 3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lord calls this thesis “Reasons
Responsiveness”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Lord, Reasons
Responsiveness entails the following principle:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Equivalence</span></b><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Necessarily,
you are rational if and only if you correctly respond to reasons. (Lord 2018, p.
23)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">In
this blog post, I will briefly explain why I believe that Equivalence—and by
extension, Reasons Responsiveness—is false.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">To
better appreciate Lord’s proposal, let us consider how it explains the
irrationality incurred from having inconsistent beliefs or intentions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many (if not most) contemporary action
theorists attempt to explain why it is irrational to have inconsistent beliefs
or intentions in terms of something along the lines of the following wide scope
norms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Belief Consistency:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Rationality
requires that [if one believes P, then one does not believe ¬P]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Intention
Consistency:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Rationality
requires that [if one intends to F, then one does not intend to ¬F]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Lord
deems such wide scope norms unnecessary given that the same explanatory work
may be done by Reasons Responsiveness. Simply put, in all cases in which an
agent has inconsistent beliefs or intentions, they are also failing to respond
appropriately to their reasons. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the present view, if one possesses
decisive reasons to adopt a certain attitude or course of action, then one is
rationally required to adopt that attitude or course of action (p. 11).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, if one possesses decisive reason to
believe P, then one ipso facto possesses decisive reason not to believe ¬P.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hence, we may explain why it is irrational
for an agent to have inconsistent beliefs in terms of the requirement that they
respond appropriately to their reasons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The upshot is that we are free to dispense with Belief Consistency and
Intention Consistency, and adopt Reasons Responsiveness in their place. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Pace
Lord, I maintain that there are cases in which an agent violates Intention
Consistency, but in which they do not violate Reasons Responsiveness. Hence,
Reasons Responsiveness is unable to explain all cases in which an agent is
irrational for having inconsistent intentions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ixy714-hpcY/XCT-V5jQFHI/AAAAAAAAAyM/K30ZEMHBLko0UewDN6-bZnMy7cXPgWI-ACLcBGAs/s1600/104901954-GettyImages-526662914-campbells.530x298.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="298" data-original-width="530" height="179" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ixy714-hpcY/XCT-V5jQFHI/AAAAAAAAAyM/K30ZEMHBLko0UewDN6-bZnMy7cXPgWI-ACLcBGAs/s320/104901954-GettyImages-526662914-campbells.530x298.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Consider
an agent, let’s call her Edna, who goes to the supermarket to purchase some
soup. She finds two identical cans of Campbell’s Tomato soup—can A and can B—on
the shelf and forms the intention to take can A rather than can B.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since both cans are indistinguishable in
every salient respect, each reason Edna possesses to (intend to) take can A—e.g.,
she loves soup, Campbell’s Tomato soup is her favourite, the soup is on sale,
etc.—is also a reason she possesses to intend to take can B.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What Edna lacks is a reason to take can A
rather than can B or a reason to take can B rather than can A. Even so, Edna
may intend to take can A rather than can B.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Moreover, she does not appear to be guilty of irrationality for so doing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">If
the above analysis is right, then this poses a problem for Reasons
Responsiveness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is because while it
is rationally permissible for Edna to intend to take can A rather than can B,
it is not rationally permissible for her to simultaneously intend to take can A
rather than can B and intend to take can B rather than can A.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In sum, even in picking situations, one is
not rationally permitted to have inconsistent intentions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, as we already noted, Edna has no
reason to (intend to) take can A rather than can B. We therefore cannot explain
why Edna is being irrational by saying she fails to respond appropriately to
her reasons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ex hypothesi, she has
none.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hence, we appear to have a case in
which an agent has inconsistent intentions but does not fail to respond
correctly to the reasons she possesses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Lord
anticipates a similar kind of objection in chapter 2 of his volume.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the case Lord considers differs from
the above example in a crucial respect.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Lord considers a case in which an agent possesses sufficient (but not
decisive) reason to intend to F and sufficient (but not decisive) reason to not
intend to F.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such cases appear to pose a
problem for Reasons Responsiveness since possessing merely sufficient reason to
intend to F does not entail possessing decisive reason to not intend to ¬F. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The apparent upshot is that Reasons
Responsiveness appears to allow that an agent with merely sufficient reasons
may have inconsistent intentions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Lord
solves this problem by appealing to a principle he calls “Intentions Attenuate”
(p. 31).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Intentions
Attenuate, if one adopts the intention to F, the adopted intention attenuates
the strength of all competing intentions, including the intention to ¬F.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Intentions Attenuate contrasts with the
popular suggestion that forming an intention generates additional reasons to do
what one intends.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lord rejects this
proposal due to bootstrapping concerns (and rightly so).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Intentions Attenuate avoids the boostrapping
problems because it does not entail that merely forming an intention generates
additional reasons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather, it entails
that an intention may either intensify or attenuate the weight of one’s
pre-existing reasons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, it is the
very feature of Intentions Attenuate that allows it to avoid boostrapping
concerns that preclude it from solving the problem being limned in this post.
Since Edna has no reason to intend to take can A rather than can B, there are
no reasons to be either intensified or attenuated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The upshot is that Intentions Attenuate is of
no help to Lord in addressing the present worry. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">One
possible diagnosis of why Intentions Attenuate is ineffective against the Edna example is that it appears to
presuppose that an intention is rationally permissible only if one has at least
some reason in its favour.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See p. 38 of
Lord’s discussion.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, I believe intentions
stand in contrast to belief in precisely this regard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Plausibly, it is rationally permissible to
adopt a certain belief only if one has some reason in its favour, at least when
it comes to beliefs about external world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For example, I cannot rationally believe that the number of stars in the
Milky Way is even given that I lack any reason to believe that it is.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, as the rational permissibility of
picking illustrates, it may be rationally permissible to adopt an intention
even if one has no reason in support of the intention.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Given this fact, we cannot hope to make sense
of the consistency norms governing intentions in terms of an agent appropriately
responding to her possessed reasons.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Reference:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif;">Lord,
E. (2018) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Importance of Being
Rational</i>. Oxford University Press.</span></div>
</div>
AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-76037601011483050692018-12-14T21:02:00.000+01:002019-10-30T00:23:26.964+01:00Feldman & Conee Evidentialism and Incomplete Evidence<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
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<br />
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">In a recent essay, “Between Belief and
Disbelief”, R. Feldman and E. Conee (F&C) defend the following
evidentialist thesis:</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">(EC)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Believing is the justified attitude when the
person’s evidence on balance supports a proposition, disbelieving the justified
attitude when the person’s evidence on balance supports the negation of a
proposition, and suspension of judgement is the justified attitude when the
person’s evidence on balance supports neither a proposition nor its negation.</span><span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">F&C observe that (EC) “implies that
even slight support is sufficient to make belief justified”(p. 76). In this
respect, (EC) stands in contrast to views according to which an agent may be
justified in suspending judgement about <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>
even if their evidence slightly supports <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>
over ¬<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>F&C motivate (EC) with the following
claim:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">“Barely indicating truth is still
indicating truth. Believing fits with this indication; withholding judgement
does not. Thus, believing and not withholding is the attitude justified by minimal
evidential support (p. 77).”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">F&C go on to add the following two
clarifications with respect to (EC): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">First, they note that saying that having
one’s evidence slightly support <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>
over ¬<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> is enough to justify
believing <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> is consistent with the
idea that beliefs are accompanied by different strengths of conviction.
Moreover, it is possible that beliefs themselves come in degrees, which
correspond with the strength of conviction implicated by them. Given this fact,
we may also hold that the strength of conviction with which an agent believes <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> (or their degree of belief in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>) should mirror or be proportional to
how much their evidence supports <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>.
Hence, saying that having one’s evidence slightly support <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> over ¬<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> is sufficient
for belief does not imply that it is sufficient for having full confidence in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> or believing <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> with full conviction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Second, they emphasize that just because
one believes <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>, it does not follow
that one ought to act on one’s belief.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If one believes <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> with a very
low level of conviction (or to a sufficiently minimal degree), it may be more
appropriate to wait for additional evidence (assuming the option is available)
rather than to act on one’s belief. These two points of clarification are meant
to bolster the plausibility and palatability of (EC).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">F&C do not go into great detail
about what is entailed by an attitude being justified. They do note that “an
attitude’s being epistemically justified does not imply having any sort of duty
or obligation to take the attitude”(p. 79).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, it is plausible (and F&C would most certainly agree) that
an attitude is justified only if it is rationally permissible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It also seems plausible that an attitude that
is not justified is not rationally permissible. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Both of these claims are consistent with saying
that an attitude being justified does not entail any rational obligation to
adopt that attitude.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In sum, whether or
not an attitude is justified appears to covary with whether or not it is
rationally permissible, and not with whether or not it is rationally
obligatory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to make the notion
of justification a bit more concrete (and hence more amenable to appraisal), I
will frame my discussion of justification in terms of whether or not an
attitude is rationally permissible.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">I wish to grant F&C’s contention
that having one’s evidence on balance slightly support <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> is enough for it to be rationally permissible to believe <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>, given the caveat about strength of
conviction or degrees of belief adumbrated above. However, I resist the
implication that it would be rationally impermissible to suspend <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> if one’s evidence very slightly
supported <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> over ¬<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This implication of (EC) seems particularly implausible in cases in
which one is aware that the evidence currently available is known to be limited
or incomplete.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, suppose that
the evidence we currently have available slightly supports the proposition “String
Theory is true” over its negation. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Suppose
further that we know that the evidence bearing on whether or not String Theory
is true is scarce or significantly incomplete. Under such circumstances, it
seems as though it would be rationally permissible (i.e., justified) in
suspending judgement about whether String Theory is true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If this is right, then one may be justified in
suspending <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> even if one’s available
evidence slightly supports <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> over ¬<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">To sum up, in cases in which we have
reason to think that our currently available evidence is incomplete, we may be
justified in suspending judgement even if on balance our evidence slightly
favours <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Reference:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "palatino linotype" , serif; font-size: 11.0pt;">Feldman,
R.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and E. Conee (2018). “Between Belief
and Disbelief” in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Believing in Accordance
with the Evidence: New Essays on Evidentialism</i>, edited by K. McCain. Synthese
Library: Studies in Epistemology, Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">398</b>: 71-89.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-497638266476428762015-09-30T21:49:00.000+01:002015-10-02T14:23:50.350+01:00Cognitivism and Intending to Try<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">One set of putative
counterexamples to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Strong Belief
Thesis (SBT)</i>—the claim that intending to X entails the belief that one will
X—involve cases in which an agent allegedly intends something difficult and is
therefore unsure they will succeed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
such cases, it is claimed, an agent intends to X but does not believe that they
will X.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Brunero describes one such case
as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">“[L]et’s
consider the case of someone who intends to lift a heavy log that has fallen
onto his front porch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Plausibly, he
intends to lift the log but doesn’t believe that he will.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s not that he believes he won’t; he’s
simply agnostic about whether he will”(p. 22).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Defenders
of SBT often respond to such putative counterexamples by saying that, in such
cases, the agent in question intends to try to X, rather than intends to
X.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Brunero claims that even if
this strategy preserves SBT, it does so at the expense of the intuition that
the log-lifter is rationally criticisable for failing to bend his knees. This
is because the log-lifter may believe that bending his knees is necessary for
lifting the log without believing that it is necessary for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">trying </i>to lift the log.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Brunero writes:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">“Intuitively, if this man were to believe that he’ll
lift the log only if he bends his knees when he lifts, and were to fail to
intend to bend his knees when he lifts, he would be criticizable as means-ends
incoherent. But he might think that bending one’s knees, while necessary for
lifting the log, isn’t necessary for trying to lift the log. After all, we
could suppose that the last time he didn’t bend his knees, he tried and failed
to lift the log, but didn’t fail to try to lift the log. So, if his intention
is merely to try to lift the log, he is no longer criticizable as means-ends
incoherent in failing to intend to bend his knees”(p. 23).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
efficacy of preceding line of argument will largely depend on our conception of
“trying”. Consider the account of trying defended by Jennifer Hornsby, who defines
trying to do something as roughly “doing what one can to do the thing”(Hornsby,
p. 19). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On one natural reading of
Hornsby, trying to X involves doing all in your power to X. (I will call this
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hornsby account</i> of trying, though
it is likely to be a gross oversimplification of the picture that Hornsby
herself endorses.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Given the Hornsby
account, intending to try to X entails intending to do all in your power to
X.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since bending at the knees is assumed
to be something in the log-lifter’s power, and since the log-lifter does not
intend to bend his knees, it follows that the log-lifter is being irrational
when he fails to intend to bend his knees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He is failing to intend something (i.e., bending at the knees) that is
necessary for achieving his end (i.e., doing all in his power to lift the log).
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">While the
Hornsby account preserves the intuition that the log-lifter is irrational for
failing to bend his knees, insofar as he genuinely intends to try to lift the
log it also seems much too demanding to constitute a plausible account of
trying.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One does not need to do all in
one’s power to X in order to try to X.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>One may, for example, decide in advance that one is only willing to put
so much effort and no more into accomplishing some task. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In such a case, one still plausibly counts as
trying to accomplish that task.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
example, suppose I am at an auction, and I am trying to purchase a vase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have $500 on me.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, I have determined that I am not
willing to pay more than $350 for the vase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Suppose that I bid on the vase up until the $350 mark, but stopping
bidding when the price of the vase climbs above $350.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since I still have $150 in my pocket, I haven’t
yet done all that I can to purchase the vase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, it seems implausible to say that I did not try to purchase the
vase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">In light of
the preceding problem, I think the cognitivist should reject the Hornsby
account.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, there are two features
of Hornsby’s account of trying that the cognitivist may wish to take on board.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, trying requires a good faith
effort.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One does not count as trying if
there is something one believes to be necessary for X-ing, but which one
deliberately fails to do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, trying
only requires doing those things that are in one’s power or under one’s
control. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is an important feature of
trying since it is meant to capture the idea that trying is something we often resort
to when we are in doubt about our successfully completing some task.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even if successfully X-ing is not up to us,
there may be things along the path to X-ing that are up to us, and trying involves
doing those things. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
challenge that faces the cognitivist is to provide an account of trying that includes
the above features and that also allows us to make sense of examples like that
of the vase-bidder and log-lifter. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My
next comment will offer such an account.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If successful, my account of trying will allow the cognitivist to maintain
that the log-lifter is rationally criticisable for failing to bend his knees
even though he only intends to try to lift the log.</span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Consider
the following suped up version of the Hornsby account:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps;">Trying <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">S is trying
at some time T<sub>1</sub> to X only if for any Y, if S believes at T<sub>1</sub>
that doing Y at T<sub>2</sub> is necessary for achieving X and S truly believes
that doing Y at T<sub>2</sub> is under S’s control, then S does Y at T<sub>2</sub>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">One
distinctive feature of the immediately preceding account of trying is that it
includes two temporal markers, T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub>
respectively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The point of the T<sub>1 </sub>temporal
marker will soon become clear.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However,
a brief statement about the motivation for the T<sub>2 </sub>temporal marker is
also in order.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The T<sub>2</sub>
temporal marker is meant to address a worry highlighted by Kieran Setiya,
albeit in a different context. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See his
“Cognitivism about Instrumental Rationality”.) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Setiya observes that an agent may believe that
intending some means, M, may be necessary for achieving some end E, and yet an
agent may fail to intend M because she trusts that she will do so at a later
time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Setiya observes that such an agent
need not be guilty of irrationality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Let
us call such cases <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">self-trust cases</i>. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One way to handle self-trust cases is to
insert a temporal marker into the Means-End Coherence principle:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps;">Means-End Coherence*<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Rationality
requires that [if one intends to X, and believes that one will X only if one
intends to Y at some time T<sub>1</sub>, then one intend to Y at T<sub>1</sub>].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Means-End
Coherence* allows us to accommodate self-trust cases because it permits an
agent to rationally refrain from intending a means believed to be necessary for
some end until that time at which intending the means is actually necessary for
achieving that end.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A similar issue arises in cases of trying
that involve multiple steps towards achieving some end.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If purchasing a plane ticket requires that I
book my flight by 6pm and pay for my ticket by 8pm, the T<sub>2</sub> temporal
marker ensures that I may qualify as trying to purchase my plane ticket at 7pm,
even though all I have done is booked my flight. No doubt, other kinds of
considerations may be invoked in order to further refine <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Trying</span>, so as to make it more
precise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the present (rough) formulation
should be good enough to illustrate the possibility of offering an account of
trying that meets the specifications that the cognitivist needs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Subtleties
aside, what makes <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Trying</span> of
interest (in the present context) is that it allows us to preserve the
intuition that the vase-bidder tried to purchase the vase. Let us assume, for
the sake of simplicity, that whether or not the vase-bidder bids is completely
up to her.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We can therefore assume that
the “doing Y at T<sub>2</sub> is under S’s control” condition has been
satisfied. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the auctioneer announces a
new price for the vase—$150…$250….$350…and so on—what the vase-bidder believes
is necessary for purchasing the vase is being constantly updated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the starting price of $150 is announced,
the vase-bidder comes to believe that she must bid $150 to purchase the
vase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If she refrains from bidding $150
(i.e., doing what she believes to be necessary to purchasing the vase), then she
does not count as trying to purchase the vase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, if she bids $150 and refrains from bidding $250 at this stage,
she still counts as trying to purchase the vase. Bidding $250 becomes a
requirement for purchasing the vase only after she forms the belief that is
necessary for doing so.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, this
belief is not retroactive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It remains
true that the vase-bidder tried to purchase the vase when she bid $150 since
bidding $150 is what she believed was necessary for purchasing the vase at the
time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Let us
assume that the vase-bidder continues to bid up to the $350 mark.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the announced price of the vase climbs
above $350, the vase-bidder stops bidding. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At this point, it seems natural to say that the
vase-bidder has stopped trying to purchase the vase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, a natural description of the entire
scenario seems to be that the vase-bidder tried to purchase the vase, but that
(at a certain point) she stopped trying.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>At which point did she stop trying? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She stopped trying at the point at which she
stopped bidding—i.e., the point at which she stopped doing what she believed to
be necessary for purchasing the vase. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; font-variant: small-caps;">Trying</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;"> also allows us to make sense of why the log-lifter is
irrational for failing to intend what he believes to be necessary for lifting
the log even though he only intends to try to lift the log. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To briefly recap, Brunero observes that the
log-lifter may have tried to lift the log in the past without bending his
knees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This, by Brunero’s lights,
suggests that trying to lift the log does not require bending at the knees. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If it did, then it would not have been
possible for the log-lifter to try to lift the log in the past without bending his
knees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But now we can see where
Brunero’s argument seems to go wrong.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
assumes that because bending at the knees was not necessary for the
log-lifter’s previously trying to lift the log, it is not necessary for the
log-lifter’s presently trying to lift the log.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But there has been a crucial change in the log-lifter’s doxastic makeup
between his past and present attempts to lift the log.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During previous attempts, the log-lifter did
not believe that bending at the knees was necessary for lifting the log.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of course, he was open to the possibility
that it was necessary.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But being open to
the possibility that <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b> is not to
believe <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P</b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So, during his previous attempts to lift the
log, he did not believe that bending at the knees was necessary for lifting the
log.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This explains how it was previously
possible for the log-lifter to try to lift the log without bending at his
knees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, it does not follow that
it is now possible for the log-lifter to try to lift the log without bending at
the knees since the log-lifter now believes that bending at the knees is
necessary for lifting the log.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the
vase-bidder, what is necessary for the log-lifter to count as trying to X
changes as his beliefs about what is necessary for X-ing gets updated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hence, even if the log-lifter’s trying to
lift the log in the past did not require bending his knees, it does not follow
that the log-lifter’s presently trying to lift the log does not require bending
his knees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">What does
this mean for the log-lifter’s intention to try?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the present conception of trying,
intending to try to X involves intending to do whatever you believe at the time
to be necessary for X-ing. Of course, as one’s beliefs about what is necessary
for X-ing are updated, one may change one’s mind about doing what one believes
is necessary for X-ing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, one
may think that some action Y (while under one’s control) is simply not
something one is willing to do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the
point at which one both believes that Y is necessary for X-ing and at which one
refuses to do Y, one stops trying to X.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>At this point, you should also stop intending to try.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, if you did not stop intending to try,
you would be violating Means-End Coherence*. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You would be intending to do something (i.e.,
trying to lift the log) without forming an intention you believed to be
necessary for achieving that thing (i.e., an intention to bend his knees). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">I will
conclude by considering a possible objection to the preceding account.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There may be a worry that the present account
of trying is too strong because it entails that the log-lifter cannot intend to
try, insofar as he believes that bending his knees is necessary for lifting the
log and he does not intend to bend his knees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If this were right, it would indeed be a problem for the cognitivist since
instead of explaining why the log lifter is irrational, the cognitivist would
be explaining away the very possibility of the log-lifter being irrational. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, this worry rests on a mistake.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Intending to try is an instance of intending,
not an instance of trying.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And like all
other intentions one does not actually have to do what one intends in order to
count as having the intention to do it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
other words, intending to try no more entails actually trying than intending to
kick a ball requires actually kicking the ball.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Moreover, while trying to X requires actually doing everything you
believe at the time to be necessary for X-ing, intending to try to X does not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hence, the present objection errs by
conflating what is necessary for intending to try to X and actually trying to
X.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the latter requires that the
log-lifter bend at knees, insofar as he believes this to be necessary for
lifting the log, the former does not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
upshot is that the log-lifter may intend to try to lift the log without
actually bending at the knees or intending to do so.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></div>
</div>
AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-5158629382516254632014-10-17T13:40:00.000+01:002014-10-17T13:53:14.849+01:00Hanks' Univocality Objection to Theories of Interrogative Content<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In his paper, “The Content-Force Distinction”, Peter Hanks claims
that three prominent semantic accounts of interrogatives—those of Hamblin
(1973), Karttunen (1997), and Groenendijk and Stokhof (1982, 1997)—are all
inadequate because they fail to preserve the univocality of “knows that” (e.g.
Jones knows <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">that</i> Smith is tall) and “knows
whether” (e.g., Jones knows <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">whether</i>
Smith is tall). I will not examine the three accounts of interrogatives that
Hanks impugns here.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nor will I attempt
to assess the various replies to Hanks’ argument that may be offered on behalf
of the three approaches in order to show that they can, in fact, preserve the
univocality of “knows” across cases of “knows that” and “knows whether”.
Instead, I will examine Hanks’ argument directly, and challenge the assumption
that the term “knows” is univocal in the way Hanks suggests.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Hanks begins by noting that the term “knows” is genuinely ambiguous
when used in its acquaintance sense (e.g., “Jones knows Wilson”) and in its
propositional sense (e.g., “Jones knows that Smith is tall”). This is what
explains the infelicity of the following sentence:</span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">(1) </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Jones
knows that Smith is tall and Wilson. </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In short, it is ambiguity of “knows” in its acquaintance and
propositional senses that explains the infelicity of (1).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hanks draws the preliminary conclusion that
one cannot form a conjunction with a genuinely ambiguous use of “knows” (in the
manner illustrated in (1)) without infelicity. So goes the first stage of Hanks
argument.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">The second stage of Hanks’ argument consists in his contention that
the difference between “knows that” and “knows whether” is best conceived of as
the difference between a knowledge claim that modifies indicative content and a
knowledge claim that modifies interrogative content, respectively. In support
of this conclusion, Hanks invites us to consider two statements:</span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">(2)</span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Jones
knows that Smith is tall.</span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">(3)</span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Jones
knows whether Smith is tall.</span></blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">It is clear that (2) and (3) have different contents.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Suppose that Jones knows that Smith is not
tall. In that case, (2) would be false, while (3) would be true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But how are we to make sense of the
difference between (2) and (3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is
tempting to view (3) as a disjunction of two knowledge claims, along the lines
of (4):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
(4) Either Jones knows that Smith is tall or
he knows that Smith is not tall.</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">On the present suggestion, “knows whether” is elliptical for a
disjunction of a pair of competing “knows that” claims. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">However, Hanks maintains that the above analysis of “knows whether”
is unsatisfactory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is because the commitment
to compositionality requires that we see expressions like “whether Smith is
tall” as making the same semantic contribution to different sentences in which
it occurs. But this requirement cannot be satisfied if we conceive of (3) along
the lines of (4).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, consider
(5): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
(5) Jones asked whether Smith is tall.</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">If we assume that “knows whether” statements are an elliptical
treatment of a disjunction, then (given the commitment to compositionality) we
would have to interpret (5) along the lines of (6):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
(6) Either Jones asks that Smith is tall or
Jones asks that Smith is not tall.</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">But (6) is clearly infelicitous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Hence, interpreting “knows whether” as a disjunction comes at the cost
of compositionality.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">According to Hanks, our best chance of making sense of (3) in a way
that satisfies the compositionality requirement is to hold that the embedded
expression “whether smith is tall” is an instance of interrogative content. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How we understand interrogative content will
of course depend on our theory of interrogatives, which is what is under
dispute in Hanks’ paper. But the basic idea is this: the expression “Jones knows
whether Smith is tall” is best interpreted along the lines of “Jones knows the answer
to: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">is Smith tall</i>?” This is the
conclusion of the second stage of Hanks argument.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In the third, and final, stage of his argument, Hanks observes that
the following claim is felicitous:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
(7) Jones knows that Smith is tall and whether
Wilson is married.</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">According to Hanks, this suggests that “knows” is not ambiguous across
“knows that” and “knows whether”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Given that “know that” is a knowledge claim with embedded indicative
content, and “know whether” is a knowledge claim with embedded interrogative
content, it follows that “knows” is not ambiguous across indicative and
interrogative content. Hence, Hanks concludes that those accounts of
interrogative content that fail to preserve the univocality of “knows” across
indicative and interrogative contents are mistaken.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Here is a recap of all three stages of Hanks’ argument and his
conclusion:</span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB"><i>Stage 1</i>: One cannot form a conjunction with a genuinely ambiguous use of “knows” without infelicity.</span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB"><i>Stage 2</i>: “knows that” and “knows whether” correspond with knowledge claims with embedded indicative content and interrogative content, respectively. </span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB"><i>Stage 3</i>: One can form a conjunction with “knows that” and “knows whether” without infelicity. </span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB"><i>Conclusion</i>: Knowledge claims with embedded indicative content and embedded interrogative content do not involve a genuinely ambiguous use of “knows”.</span></blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">I believe that the first stage of Hanks argument is unsound.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consider the following sentence:</span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">(8)</span><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">Jones knows how to play the piano and that the concert is being
held downtown.</span></blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">(8) is no less felicitous than (7).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, (8) features an ambiguous use of “knows”. The first conjunct is
an instance of “know how” while the second conjunct is an instance of “know that”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or, for another example, consider (9):</span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">(9)</span><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">Jones knows how to play the piano and whether the concert is
being held downtown.</span></blockquote>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">(9) is also perfectly felicitous. But it too involves an ambiguous use
of “knows”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first conjunct is an
instance of “know how” and the second conjunct is an instance of “know whether”.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">(8) and (9) illustrate that is possible to have a conjunction that
features the ambiguous use of “knows” without infelicity. Hence, we cannot
conclude from the fact that (7) is felicitous that it involves a univocal sense
of “knows”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The upshot is that it is
unclear that three prominent theories of interrogative content Hanks mentions have
the burden of preserving the univocality of “knows” across “knows that” and
“knows how” since the claim that there is such univocality remains
unestablished.</span></div>
AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-10480764080495423982014-09-07T21:08:00.000+01:002014-09-08T02:28:57.398+01:00Heuer's Argument Against the Humean Theory<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In his paper, “Reasons for Actions and Desires”, Ulrike Heuer
attempts to cast doubt on the Humean account of practical reasons (in the sense
of justificatory reasons for action). Heuer describes the Humean account as the
claim that “all practical reasons are based on a person’s given motives, or
desires” (p. 43). Moreover, he takes the
Humean to be committed to the following two claims: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(<b>H1</b>) Anything can be the object of a desire. </span></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(<b>H2</b>) Actions can be justified (at least in
some rudimentary sense) by showing that they are suited to lead to the
satisfaction of a desire. (p. 52)</span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I will put aside the question of whether the Humean is necessarily
committed to (H1) and (H2) for the time being. Let us assume, for the sake of
argument, that she is.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This, Heuer
argues, makes the Humean account susceptible to the following counterexample,
due to Warren Quinn:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Imagine that I had a disposition to turn on every radio within my
reach, but not because I want to listen to music or news; as Quinn puts it:
‘Indeed, I do not turn them on in order to hear anything’. (p. 51)</span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The preceding case is supposed to present us with a scenario in
which an agent has a desire, but in which the desire fails to justify the actions
that would lead to the satisfaction of that desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to constitute a genuine
counterexample to the Humean account, the Humean must be committed to saying
that the agent in Quinn’s example does in fact have a desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to establish that the Humean is so
committed, Heuer notes that “most Humeans rely on” a functionalist conception
of desire, according to which an agent desires some end just in case she is
disposed to perform actions that would lead to achieving that end (p. 51).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the agent in Quinn’s example satisfies
the right-hand-side of the preceding biconditional, it follows that
he has a desire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One immediate problem with the preceding argument is that Heuer
fails to establish that the Humean must be committed to a functionalist (or
some relevantly similar) conception of desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He only claims that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">most</i>
Humeans “rely” on a functionalist conception. However, it matters little if
most (or even all) Humeans rely on a functionalist conception of desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What Heuer needs, if he is to establish that
the counterexample has force against the Humean, is that the Humean <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">is necessarily</i> committed to a
functionalist (or some relevantly similar) conception of desire, given her
other theoretical commitments. But, as we shall soon see, the Humean need not
be saddled with a functionalist conception of desire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Perhaps it is Heuer’s recognition of the above point that leads him
to stress the Humean’s commitment to (H1).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The idea seems to be this: since the Humean is committed to the claim
that anything can be the object of a desire, it follows that she has no basis
for denying that the agent in Quinn’s example has a desire to turn on every
radio within reach. If this is supposed to be Heuer’s line of argument, then it
appears to rest on a mistake.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Specifically, Heuer appears to conflate two very distinct claims: the
claim that (i) there is no formal constraint on the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">content</b> of a desire, and the claim that<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(ii) there is no formal constraint on the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">nature</b> of a desire. While (H1) plausibly
entails (i), it does not entail (ii).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>That is to say, a Humean need not be committed to saying that every
attitude that has the function of disposing an agent to act is a desire (i.e., the
functionalist conception of desire). For example, a Humean may consistently
subscribe to the following hybrid of a pleasure-based and action-based
conception of desire:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Pleasure-Action-Hybrid View</span></i><span lang="EN-GB"> (<b>PAH</b>)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">S desires P iff S is disposed to take whatever actions S believes
necessary to bring about P, and S has this disposition in virtue of the fact
that S is disposed to take pleasure in the thought that P and displeasure in
the thought that not-P.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">According to PAH, an agent counts as having a desire only in those
cases in which she is disposed to perform actions in a specific way; namely, in
virtue of being disposed to take pleasure in the thought of the desired outcome
obtaining, and displeasure in the thought of the desired outcome failing to
obtain. Significantly, this is not a formal constraint on the content of a
desire. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is formal constraint on what
constitutes a desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Admittedly, it may
turn out that, as a matter of fact, a given agent may be disposed to take
pleasure or displeasure in the thought of only certain outcome’s obtaining and
not others. But his is an empirical and contingent matter. Not a formal
one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It remains true that, in principle,
anything may be the object of desire, even if it turns out that some things
seldom or never are.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hence, PAH is
perfectly consistent with (H1).</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moreover, PAH allows the Humean to adopt the following more nuanced
reply to Quinn’s example.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to
PAH, the agent in Quinn’s example has a desire to turn on every radio within
reach only if he is disposed to satisfy the desire in virtue of a disposition
to take pleasure in the thought of every radio within reach being on and
displeasure in the thought of every radio within reach being off.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But once we substitute PAH for a
functionalist conception of desire, Quinn’s purported counterexample seems much
less compelling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If, on the one hand,
the agent in Quinn’s example is disposed to take pleasure in thought of the
radios being on, it seems less obvious that her desire to do so fails to
provide her with some (even if rudimentary) justification.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After all, the fact that she is disposed to
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in Quinn’s example is not disposed to take pleasure in the thought of every
radio within reach being on (which seems truer to Quinn’s original intention),
then the Humean may consistently deny that the agent has a desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She may, instead, hold that the agent merely
has a pathological urge or some other motivational state distinct from desire.
In short, the Humean need not be saddled with the view that all states that
dispose an agent to act so as to satisfy them are genuine desires. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span>
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB">Finally, there seems to be a fatal flaw in the overall structure of Heuer's appropriation of Quinn's example as an argument against the Humean account. </span>Recall, Heuer defines the Humean account as
the theory of rationality according to which “all practical reasons are based
on a person’s given motives, or desires” (p. 43). The Humean is therefore committed to the
claim that having a desire is a necessary condition for having a practical justification.
However, the claim that all practical justification is based on desire does not
entail that all desires provide practical justification. The former specifies a necessary condition
for practical justification, while the latter specifies a sufficient condition.
Hence, the Humean may grant that the desire of the agent described in Quinn’s
example fails to provide him with a reason.
However, it does not follow from the fact that some desires fail to
provide practical justification that all desires fail to provide practical
justification or that all practical justification is not based onn desire. In
short, Heuer has not provided us with a valid argument against the claim that
all practical justification is based on desires.</span><br />
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AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-63171602200929694412014-08-05T23:01:00.000+01:002014-08-05T23:03:36.315+01:00Heathwood's Disagreement Argument Against Hedonic Tone Theory<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In his paper, “Desire-Based Theories of
Reasons, Pleasure, and Welfare”, Chris Heathwood impugns the hedonic tone
theory of pleasure in favour of an attitude-based approach.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the former, what makes an
experience count as pleasurable is the fact that it exhibits a certain
distinctive felt quality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to
the latter, what makes an experience count as pleasurable is the fact that we
desire to continue having the experience as we are experiencing it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I find Heathwood’s overall case against the
hedonic-tone theory compelling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However,
in this post, I wish to focus on his very first argument against hedonic tone
theory, which I found to be less than compelling. Here is the argument in
Heathwood’s own words:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">I believe the attitudinal approach to be
more plausible. The cases that most clearly support it over the hedonic tone
theory (the superior version of the felt-quality approach) involve sensations
that some people like and others don’t, and sensations that bother some people
but not others. The sound of fingernails scratching on a chalkboard is
extremely unpleasant to many people, but not at all unpleasant to others. If
unpleasantness is intrinsic to unpleasant sensations, as is maintained by the
hedonic tone theory, then one of these groups of people has to be mistaken. If
this sound really is intrinsically unpleasant, then those whom it doesn’t
bother and who therefore judge it to be not at all unpleasant, are wrong. That
is hard to swallow (Heathwood (2010: 91).</span> </blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Let's call the argument limned in the preceding passage the "Disagreement Argument". We may reconstruct Heathwood’s Disagreement Argument as
follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">[<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P1</b>]:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The hedonic tone theory is committed to the
claim that if a sensation, S, is pleasant, then S is intrinsically pleasant,
and if S is unpleasant, then S is intrinsically unpleasant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">[<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P2</b>]:
Some sensation, S, may be found to be pleasant by some people and not found to
be pleasant by others, or found to be unpleasant by some people and not found
to be unpleasant by others.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">[<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">C</b>]:
The hedonic theory is committed to saying that if some sensation, S, is found
to be unpleasant by some person, X, and not found to be unpleasant by some
other person, Y, then either X or Y must be mistaken.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Given that it is not plausible that X or Y
must be mistaken if they disagree about the unpleasantness of some sensation,
S, it follows that the hedonic tone theory has implausible consequences. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">However, the defender of the hedonic tone
theory may plausibly deny [P2].<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Recall,
Heathwood describes the hedonic tone theory as “the superior version of the
felt quality approach”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This suggests
that the notion of a sensation at play in the preceding argument may be
identified with the felt quality of an experience. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, if anything qualifies as subjective,
then the felt quality of an experience certainly does. However, by treating a
sensation (i.e., the felt quality of an experience) as something shared between
different people, the preceding argument fails to take seriously their
subjective quality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once we do, then a straightforward
response to Heathwood’s argument immediately becomes apparent. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Heathwood assumes that the person who finds
fingernails scratching on a chalkboard unpleasant, and one who does not, share
an experience with the same felt quality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But this is controversial, to say the least.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It seems to me that the hedonic tone theorist
may consistently hold that while the felt quality of X’s experience of
fingernails being dragging on a chalk board is intrinsically unpleasant, the
same is not true of the felt quality of Y’s experience of fingernails being
dragged on a chalk board, since the felt quality of X’s and Y’s experience are
different.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is just part of what it
means to say that the felt quality of an experience is subjective.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, saying that the felt quality of an
experience is subjective is not at odds with saying that it has intrinsic
properties. For example, if I see a red after-image as a result of a flashbulb
going off, the redness associated with the after-image is an intrinsic property
of my experience, despite the fact that there is no objective red spot present
and my experience of the red after-image is entirely subjective. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hence, saying that an experience has a certain
intrinsic property is consistent with saying that it is subjective. If this is
right, then the hedonic tone theorist may consistently accept [P1] and yet
reject [P2].<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Furthermore, if we take the subjective
character of an experience’s felt quality seriously, then [P1] should be
reworded along the following lines: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">[<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">P1*</b>]:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The hedonic tone theory is committed to the
claim that if a sensation, S, is pleasant for some person, X, then S is
intrinsically pleasant for X, and if S is unpleasant for X, then S is
intrinsically unpleasant for X.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In short, given that the felt quality of an
experience is subjective, it should always be understood as being relative to
an experiencing subject. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-61038756506148111602013-11-01T15:17:00.000+00:002013-11-11T15:25:20.091+00:00On Kripke's "Identity and Necessity"<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In this blog post, I will like to consider the implications (if any)
of the intelligibility of the following scenario for Kripke’s claim that
identity statements involving rigid designators are necessarily true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Suppose that the Messenger space probe were
to send back pictures revealing that “Venus” is actually a binary planetary
system—two planets orbiting around a common gravitational midpoint.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, as luck would have it, when viewed
from the northern hemisphere on any given morning, one of the twin-planets
(let’s call it V1) would stand perfectly in front of the other (let’s call the
second V2), so that only V1 could be seen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But in the evening, the planets would switch positions so that V2 would
obscure V1 such that only the former would be visible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The upshot of this is that the heavenly body that
was visible (from Greece or Italy) in the morning and that was “tagged” with
the name Phosphorus would actually be distinct from the heavenly body seen in
the evening and which was “tagged” with the name Hesperus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now such a scenario is clearly fictional and
may, given what we know about the laws of planetary motion, even be physically
impossible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, it certainly
strikes me as intelligible and I wish to consider what follows (in anything)
from the simple fact that it is intelligible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Suppose, after considering the above scenario, I were to say
something to the effect: “If Phosphorus and Hesperus turned out to be different
heavenly bodies, then Kripke would be left without a cogent illustration for
his identity thesis.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Presumably, Kripke
would hold that it is impossible for the antecedent of the above counterfactual
statement to be true. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, the kind
of impossibility that Kripke would have in mind would be logical and not merely
physical. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In brief, Kripke holds that
both names, Phosphorus and Hesperus, are rigid designators. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even so, this does not impugn the
intelligibility of anything said thus far since we do often employ
counterfactuals in which the antecedent is logically impossible (such as in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">reductio </i>arguments).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In Kripke’s version of the Phosphorus-Hesperus scenario, the
gravitational influence of a passing comet causes Venus to be moved from its
normal position and Mars to take its place.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He then suggests that under such circumstances, the thing to say would
not be that Phosphorus is not Hesperus (i.e., the two names designate different
heavenly bodies), but that Phosphorus has been moved so that it no longer
occupies its normal position in the night sky.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now, it does not seem to me that this reply
works in the case as I have described it. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is because in the binary-planet case we
are not simply imagining a case in which another heavenly body, say Mars, is
occupying the position we once thought was occupied by Venus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather, we are imagining a case in which what
we took to be a single object, Venus, actually turns out to be two distinct
objects. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What would Kripke say in
response to the above example? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In attempting to answer this question it may be helpful to consider
the following question:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“In the
aforementioned counterfactual, which of the two heavenly bodies, V1 or V2,
should we identify with Venus?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Given
the parity between the two cases (we can suppose that in astronomical
observations V1 was identified as Venus just as often as V2) it would seem
arbitrary to say that one, and not the other, ought to be identified with Venus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since both could not be Venus (personally I’m
not convinced of this, but it seems like the position that Kripke would hold)
then the only available option would be to say that neither heavenly bodies are
to be identified with Venus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If this is
right, then the proper name “Venus” would cease to refer to anything. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(This conclusion seems to jive with Russell’s
requirement for successful reference.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Let us suppose that in the binary-planet example, the proper name
“Venus” ceases to refer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What about the
status of the proper names “Phosphorus” and “Hesperus”?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Stated in the terminology of possible worlds,
a rigid designator is defined as one that designates the same thing in all
possible worlds in which it designates.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Suppose
that the names “Phosphorus” and “Hesperus” are both rigid designators, and that
“Phosphorus is Hesperus.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Strictly
speaking, there is no need for imagination here, since this is what Kripke
takes to be the case in the actual world.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Since they are rigid, they each designate the same thing in all possible
worlds in which they both designate. That is to say that “Phosphorus is
Hesperus” is true in all possible worlds in which “Phosphorus” and “Hesperus” both
designate, and hence that “Phosphorus exists & Hesperus exists → Phosphorus
= Hesperus” is true in all possible worlds, and is therefore necessarily
true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This, according to Kripke, is all
we mean when we say that “Phosphorus = Hesperus” is a necessary truth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In my binary-planet example, the antecedent of the conditional (Phosphorus
exists & Hesperus exists) is true and the consequent (Phosphorus = Hesperus)
is false.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It therefore appears to
represent a counterexample to Kripke’s claim that Hesperus and Phosphorus are
rigid designators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now, I have already conceded
that the situation described in the antecedent may be impossible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, perhaps Kripke should be
interpreted as allowing that even a rigid designator may designate different
things in impossible worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If so, then
perhaps there is also an expectation on Kripke’s part, that we restrict
ourselves to counterfactuals with possible antecedents whenever we unpack the
definition of rigid designator in terms of possible worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 150%;"><br /></span>
<span style="line-height: 150%;">However, on pain of circularity, such a move seems illegitimate at
this stage.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">Kripke is supposed to be
offering us an argument for necessity of identity from his definition of rigid
designation.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">But if Kripke’s definition
of rigid designation already required us to omit impossible worlds, it would be
to argue for the conclusion that a certain identity is necessary from the
starting assumption that the identity failing to hold is impossible.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">But that would be to settle before hand the
position one wished to achieve by argument.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">
</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">If Kripke’s argument is to be cogent, it must be possible to begin with
the initial supposition that the antecedent it possible.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">Then if the argument is successful, we would
be led to reject our initial supposition.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">
</span><span style="line-height: 150%;">But once we grant that the antecedent is possible (i.e., that Phosphorus
is not Hesperus), it is not clear that any argument can be given to show that the
possibility that has been assumed for the sake of argument should be rejected.</span><span style="line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 150%;">In sum, without some independent argument
showing that the binary-planet counterfactual, in which the names “Phosphorus”
and “Hesperus” designate different objects, is impossible, it is not clear that
Kripke’s argument that the names are rigid designators gets off the ground.</span></div>
AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-69946651202704195582013-10-15T17:25:00.000+01:002013-11-11T17:30:41.900+00:00Nietzsche on Good and Evil/Bad<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Since today is Nietzsche's birthday, I thought it would be a good idea to compose a blog post in his honour. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">In his essay, “‘Good and Evil,’ ‘Good and Bad’”, Nietzsche describes
the evolution of two different sets of moral codes: the “knightly-aristocratic”
or “master” morality and the “priestly” or “slave” morality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He takes as his point of departure the genealogical
accounts of the “English psychologists” who he criticises as lacking the
“historical spirit.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Nietzsche
describes them, the English psychologists claim that our concept of “good” is
actually derived from our concept of the “useful”, though we eventually forget
this initial association.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By Nietzsche’s
lights, the psychologists’ account is unhistorical in at least two
respects:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, it projects the
psychologists’ own preoccupation with “utility” unto the subject of their
enquiry, giving rise to a theoretical anachronism in their history of morality.
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This prompts them to mistakenly conceive
of the goodness of a deed as originally determined from the point of view of
the recipient of the deed rather than that of the doer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Nietzsche, by contrasts, argues that the
goodness of an action was initially defined from the perspective of the actor,
a novel and fascinating idea I will not take up at present.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, by ignoring the historicity of their
own preoccupation with utility, the psychologists give the impression that the moral
concept of the “good” is unilateral, singular and fixed. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By contrast, Nietzsche argues that moral codes
are fluid, so that what was once considered “good” may literally come to be
considered “bad” (or “evil”). The upshot of Nietzsche’s analysis is that our
present evaluation of what is good is historically contingent, and a story
needs to be told about how and why we have the particular moral code that we do.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Nietzsche sets out to tell just such a story.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To this end, he argues that our present moral
code is actually a product of Jewish <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ressentiment</i>,
or resentment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This claim presents a
two-pronged challenge to Nietzsche’s German audience.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, it implies that the morality that
pervades modern Europe is the morality of the slaves and the weak; hardly a
flattering indictment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, the claim
that the values in question are of Jewish origin is a remonstrance against
Christian anti-Semites who tend to think of their own values as distinct from, and
even opposed to, that of the Jews.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Even if one were sympathetic to Nietzsche’s overall goals, one might
have some reservations about the rhetorical manoeuvres Nietzsche employs
towards achieving them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For one thing,
Nietzsche’s distinction between the morality of the weak the morality of strong
seems racist in the most literal sense of the word.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That is, Nietzsche seems to depict the various
groups of human beings as different in some essential sense, akin to the
difference between a bird of prey and a lamb.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This observation, if accurate, amounts to a criticism of Nietzsche, not
because racism is inherently problematic (i.e., it violates our contemporary standards
of political correctness), but because it seems uncorroborated by the bulk of recent
scientific work on the subject.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">However, it is not clear that it is mandatory to attribute to
Nietzsche such strong racial essentialism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>According to the anti-essentialist, we can imagine a state of affairs in
which the Jews were the masters and the Romans were the slaves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In such a case, Nietzsche may well insist
that the Jews would be the ones exhibiting the master values.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus,
the fact that it was the Jews that played the part of representatives of slave values
is a matter of historical accident.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of
course, Nietzsche seems to think that the Jews were specially equipped to
accomplish this task in that they, unlike other oppressed groups, were willing
to take on the task of supplanting the master values.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But again, this may simply be a function of
the level of hatred the Jews had for their masters (which in turn was a
function of there singularly oppressed position), rather than a reflection of
some essential trait of the Jewish race.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Thus, it seems as if Nietzsche’s position may be divorced from any type
of empirically implausible racial essentialism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(There is a further and equally
interesting question, which I will not get into here, of how the above
anti-essentialist reading of Nietzsche relates to his thought that there are
only deeds but no doers.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">There is an additional problem with regards to the
self-consciousness with which Nietzsche seems to suggest that the Jews went
about the task of overthrowing the values of their Roman masters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is most clearly brought out in his
discussion of Jesus’s crucifixion as the event that clinched the deal in the
overthrow of the master values.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One is
left with the impression that the crucifixion was just the final step in some
masterfully orchestrated conspiracy in which the Jews got their enemies to
appropriate their (i.e., the Jews) values by making it appear as thought it
wasn’t really their (i.e., the Jews) values.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The suggestion that the Romans were basically duped into accepting
priestly morality via a clandestinely orchestrated bit of historical reverse
psychology seems, to say the least, a stretch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, perhaps we may remove the initial implausibility of this idea
by taking these events as purely descriptive of what actually happened, without
suggesting that the Jews arranged for things to happen as they did.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On this purely descriptive account, the
crucifixion, though not a premeditated strategy in an elaborate ideological
chess-game, was just the sort of event needed to distance Jewish priestly
values from their original source, thereby bestowing them with a certain faux
neutrality, ahistoricity and authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Significantly, even if we did accept the conspiracy reading of
Nietzsche, one would need to exercise some caution in attributing belief in
such a conspiracy to Nietzsche himself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Given Nietzsche’s rhetorical goals, it may very well be that Nietzsche
deliberately leaves room for (even if he doesn’t explicitly advocate) the
conspiracy interpretation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The suggestion
that the values which Nietzsche’s German readers have embraced may be the
product of a Jewish conspiracy would serve to heighten their discomfort since
it further underscores the possibility that they may have been duped.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The upshot of Nietzsche’s analysis may be put
as follows:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>not only is the fact that we
have the values we have a matter of historical accident, and not only are our
values that of the nebbish, weak and insipid, but we have all been bamboozled
into accepting them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB">This reading of Nietzsche’s rhetorical goals offers an interesting
spin on his often disparaging remarks about the Jews.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By
belittling priestly values and emphasising their Jewish origins, Nietzsche infuses
his criticisms of his complacent (and in some instances anti-Semetic) German
readers with even greater force. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you
believe a morality born of weakness and resentment is inferior, then how much
worse must be those who have been hoodwinked into accepting such a moral code
by the very one’s described as weak and nebbish.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Significantly, the reading of Nietzsche adumbrated above fails to
take a stand on whether or not he was personally opposed to priestly morality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For all that has been said, it may very well
be the case that Nietzsche himself thinks of master and priestly moralities as
simply different, with neither inherently better than the other, or he may view
priestly morality as deeper and therefore superior to master morality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, by adopting a rhetorical stance
against priestly morality and then showing how priestly morality has been
blindly embraced by his German audience, Nietzsche attempts to challenge their
self-gratifying smugness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One suspects
that it is German complacency, rather than priestly morality per se, that
constitutes the real target of Nietzsche’s criticisms. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-41834548678138107572013-08-26T01:50:00.000+01:002013-08-27T21:34:06.521+01:00Workshop on Imperative Aspects of Perceptual Experience<h1 id="hdr" style="color: #2b2b2b; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.69em; line-height: 1.2em; margin-bottom: 15px !important; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px;">Time and place:</span></h1>
<div class="vrtx-byline" style="color: #2b2b2b; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="vevent" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-image: url(http://www.hf.uio.no/vrtx/decorating/resources/dist/images/line-dotted-grey-white-bg.png); background-position: 0px 100%; background-repeat: repeat no-repeat; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px 120px 10px 0px; position: relative; width: 387px;">
<abbr class="dtstart" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" title="2013-08-28T09:00:00+02:00">Aug 28, 2013 09:00 AM</abbr> - <abbr class="dtend" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" title="2013-08-29T17:00:00+02:00">Aug 29, 2013 05:00 PM</abbr>, </div>
<div class="vevent" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-image: url(http://www.hf.uio.no/vrtx/decorating/resources/dist/images/line-dotted-grey-white-bg.png); background-position: 0px 100%; background-repeat: repeat no-repeat; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px 120px 10px 0px; position: relative; width: 387px;">
<span class="location">University of Oslo</span></div>
</div>
<div style="color: #2b2b2b; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
Are there imperatival aspects to perceptual experience? Do any experiences have intrinsic motivational powers? If so, is this at odds with their being correct or incorrect? If not, what are they correct or incorrect about? One way to approach them is by comparing perceptual experiences to speech acts. If perceptual experiences were modeled by speech acts, would the best models be assertions, imperatives, or neither? If in some ways, or on some occasions, experiences are more like imperatives than assertions are these imperatival aspects of experience reflected in any way in their accuracy conditions? Are they at odds with their having accuracy conditions at all? Are they at odds with representationalism? In this workshop we explore these and related questions.<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3 style="font-size: 1.23em; line-height: 1.29em; margin: 10px 0px 5px; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="font-style: inherit;">Schedule</strong></h3>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="font-style: inherit;">Wednesday August 28</strong></div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
9:30 Welcome and Introduction (Sebastian Watzl and Susanna Siegel)</div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
10:00-11:30 <strong style="font-style: inherit;">John Bengson</strong> (University of Wisconsin-Madison): “<em>Practical Perception”</em><br />
Commentator: Avery Archer (University of Tennessee, Knoxville)</div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
11:45-13:15 <strong style="font-style: inherit;">Susanna Siegel</strong> (Harvard University, CSMN): <em>“Affordances and the Contents of Perception”</em><br />
Commentator: Anna Bergqvist (Manchester Metropolitan University)</div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
14:15-15:45 <strong style="font-style: inherit;">Sebastian Watzl</strong> (University of Oslo, CSMN): <em>“Perceptual Guidance”</em><br />
Commentator: Dagfinn Føllesdal (Stanford University, University of Oslo)</div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
16:00-17:30 <strong style="font-style: inherit;">Gabriel Greenberg</strong> (UCLA): <em>“The Representation of Space in Visual Sequences”</em><br />
Commentator: Farid Masrour (Harvard University)</div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
<strong style="font-style: inherit;"><br /></strong>
<strong style="font-style: inherit;">Thursday August 29</strong></div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
9:30-11:00 <strong style="font-style: inherit;">Hilla Jacobson</strong> (Ben-Gurion University): <em>“Not only a Messenger: From a Purely Representational to a Hybrid Account of the Phenomenal Character of Pain”</em><br />
Commentator: Maja Spener (University of Birmingham)</div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
11:15-12:30 <strong style="font-style: inherit;">Ole Koksvik</strong> (University of Bergen): <em>“Pushiness”</em></div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 17.015625px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-top: 3px; padding: 0px;">
13:30-15:00 <strong style="font-style: inherit;">Manolo Martínez</strong> (University of Barcelona): <em>“Imperativism about Perceptual Experience – The Case of Disgust”</em><br />
Commentator: Michael Brady (University of Glasgow)</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: #2b2b2b; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 17.015625px; margin: 3px 0px 8px; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
15:15-16:45 <strong style="font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold;">Tim Bayne</strong> (University of Manchester): <em style="font-style: italic; font-weight: inherit;">“Phenomenal Attitudes”</em><br />
Commentator: Anders Nes (University of Oslo, CSMN)</div>
</div>
<h3 style="color: #2b2b2b; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.23em; line-height: 1.29em; margin: 10px 0px 5px; padding: 0px;">
</h3>
AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-57691063515412584612013-05-30T16:27:00.002+01:002013-05-30T16:43:35.268+01:00Two Senses of Providing Reasons<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">I will like to introduce a distinction between two senses in which a psychological state, X, may provide one with a reason to adopt a belief or intention. My hope is that the distinction is both clear and intuitive. So here it is:</span></div>
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">(<b>1</b>) X provides us with a reason to adopt Y by putting us in touch with a
consideration that speaks in favour of adopting Y.</span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">(<b>2</b>) X provides us with a reason to adopt Y by
constituting a consideration that speaks in favour of adopting Y. </span></blockquote>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
difference between (1) and (2) is the difference between the perceptual
appearance that it is raining outside giving one a reason to believe that it is
raining outside, and the fact that one has the perceptual appearance that there
is a pink elephant in the corner of the room giving one a reason to check
oneself into a hospital. In the first
case, the perceptual appearance provides one with a reason by putting one in
touch with a consideration that is independent of the perceptual appearance
itself and which speaks in favour of adopting the belief that it is raining
outside—namely, the fact that it is raining outside. The fact that it is raining outside is
independent of the perceptual appearance of it raining outside in the sense
that the fact would obtain (and constitute a reason to believe that is raining
outside) even if one did not have the perceptual appearance in question. By contrast, the fact that one has the
perceptual appearance of a pink elephant in the corner of the room does not put
one in touch with some independent consideration in favour of adopting the
intention to check oneself into the hospital.
Rather, the perceptual appearance itself constitutes the relevant
consideration. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Significantly,
when a psychological state provides one with a reason in the first sense, it
does so in virtue of the fact that it is an intentional state with objective
purport.</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">The perceptual appearance that it
is raining provides one with a reason to believe it is raining because it
purports to put one in touch with a mind-independent fact—to wit, the fact that
it is raining.</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">If (following Franz
Brentano) we assume that psychological states are distinctive because they have
the property of intentionality or aboutness, </span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">then we
can say that when a psychological state provides one with reasons in the sense
described in (1), it is doing so </span><i style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">qua</i><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">
psychological state. </span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">By contrast, when a
psychological state provides one with a reason in the sense described in (2),
it does not do so </span><i style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">qua</i><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> psychological
state (i.e., in virtue of being a state with the property of aboutness).</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Rather, it provides one with a reason in the
very same way that any old fact might.</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">
</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">For example, the fact that I’m bleeding profusely gives me a reason to
check myself into the hospital in the very same sense that having the
perceptual appearance that there is a pink elephant gives me a reason to check
myself into the hospital. If this is right, and given that the former lacks the property of
aboutness, then it follows that the latter does not provide rational guidance of the relevant kind in virtue of having the property of aboutness.</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">
</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Hence, only (1) describes a type of rational significance that is
uniquely had by psychological states.</span></div>
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<o:p><br /></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<o:p>Is the preceding distinction clear? Is it plausible? Your thoughts... </o:p></div>
</div>
</div>
<!--EndFragment-->AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-2352880503947408312013-04-24T14:09:00.003+00:002013-04-24T14:10:40.451+00:00Naive Realism and Qualia (Hilary Putnam)<iframe width="560" height="315" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/-1OESPPs68E?rel=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-47332886559488355572013-01-30T17:28:00.000+00:002013-02-13T13:23:08.069+00:00On the Nonexistence of Practical Withholding<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">In this post, I wish to highlight what I take to be an important but under-appreciated disanalogy between rationally permissible belief and rationally permissible action. I will say more about why I think this disanalogy is under-appreciated in later posts. For now, I will simply attempt to identify the disanalogy, and say something about why it exists.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Consider
the following example of an agent engaged in a piece of practical deliberation:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Example 1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">: <i>Lorry Driver Intention<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">A
lorry driver, Jesse, is trying to decide between continuing to drive down a
long stretch of road or stopping for a break.
After weighing all the considerations in favour of continuing to drive
(e.g., she is more likely to make her delivery on time) and all the
considerations in favour of taking a break (e.g., she would be able to get some
much deserved shut-eye), she comes to the conclusion that the total evidence
available is inconclusive either way.
She has just as much reason to continue driving as she does to stop and
take a break. Jesse decides to flip a coin: ‘head-side-up’ for continuing to drive,
and ‘tail-side-up’ for stopping for a break.
When the coin lands ‘tail-side-up’, Jesse pulls the lorry off to the side of
the road and removes the key from the ignition.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">I take the
following three claims to be uncontroversially true about the agent is Example 1:</span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Palatino Linotype";">(1)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The fact
that Jesse decided to flip a coin and the coin landed tails-side-up explains
why she decided to stop driving.</span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Palatino Linotype";">(2)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The fact
that Jesse decided to flip a coin and the coin landed tail-side-up does not justify
her decision to stop driving.</span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Palatino Linotype";">(3)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jesse is
not guilty of any irrationality for basing her decision to stop driving on the
fact that she decided to flip a coin and the coin landed tail-side-up.</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"> </span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Now,
consider the following modified version of the Lorry Driver Intention example:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Example 2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">: <i>Lorry Driver Belief </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jesse,
the lorry driver, is trying to determine if the following the proposition is true:
(H): “My lorry will run out of petrol before the next station”. However, suppose that all the evidence
available is inconclusive. Jesse has
just as much evidence in favour of (H) as she does against (H). She therefore decides to flip a coin. Assigning the value of ‘true’ to head-side-up, and
‘false’ to tail-side-up, and proceeds to flip a coin.
When the coin lands head-side-up, Jesse comes to believe (H). Jesse radios her dispatching and reports that
she believes her lorry will run out of petrol before the next station. When she is asked why she believes this, she
explains that since all the evidence she has available was inconclusive, the
decided to flip a coin. Incredulous, the
dispatcher points out that a coin flip fails to constitute evidence one way or
the other. Jesse agrees, but insists
that the coin flip remains the basis of her belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">I take the
following three claims to be uncontroversially true about the agent in Example 2:</span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Palatino Linotype";">(1)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The fact
that Jesse decided to flip a coin and the coin landed heads-side-up explains
why she believes the lorry will run out of petrol.</span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Palatino Linotype";">(2)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The fact
that Jesse decided to flip a coin and the coin landed heads-side-up does not
justify her belief that the lorry will run out of petrol.</span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Palatino Linotype";">(3)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Jesse is guilty
of irrationality for basing her belief that she will run out of petrol on the
fact that she decided to flip a coin and the coin landed heads-side-up.</span><span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"> </span></blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">In
contradistinction to the first example, the agent in the second example appears
to display gross irrationality. This
suggests an important disanalogy between rationally permissible belief and
rationally permissible action. While an agent’s actions may be rationally
permissible even though the explanation of her action fails to justify her
action, the same cannot be said of an agent’s beliefs. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">I will now attempt to offer an explanation of why the above disanalogy between rationally permissible belief and action exists: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Theoretical
deliberation always involves a choice between three doxastic attitudes:
believing, disbelieving, or withholding belief and disbelief. This means failing to believe that <b>P</b> does not entail disbelieving <b>P</b> and failing to disbelieve <b>P</b> does not entail believing <b>P</b>.
Withholding <b>P</b> always remains an option. Withholding <b>P</b>, as I am using the expression, is not the same as failing to
adopt an attitude of belief and disbelief towards <b>P</b>. One may fail to adopt an
attitude of belief and disbelief towards <b>P</b>
because one has simply not considered <b>P</b>. In such a case, one neither believes nor
disbelieves <b>P</b>. But one is not withholding <b>P</b> either. One simply has not taken any attitude
towards <b>P</b>. In short, withholding <b>P</b> is as much an attitude towards <b>P</b> as believing or disbelieving <b>P</b>.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">I
believe that the disanalogy between reasons for belief and reasons for actions,
highlighted in the previous section, is tied to the absence of a practical
analogue to withholding. Consider once again the lorry driver who has to decide
between continuing to drive and stopping for a break. The lorry driver’s decision has a zero-sum
structure. If she adopts the intention to continue driving, she has <i>ipso facto</i> adopted the intention not to
take a break. The same is true, mutatis
mutandis, if she adopts the intention to take a break. There is no attitude of
practical withholding that she may adopt as an end point of her deliberative
process. In sum, while there are three possible doxastic attitudes one can take
towards <b>P</b>—believing <b>P</b>, disbelieving <b>P</b>, and withholding <b>P</b>—there
are only two possible volitional attitudes one can take towards an
outcome—intending to bring about <b>P</b> and
intending not to bring about <b>P</b>. On the present analysis, not intending to
bring about <b>P</b> is not an attitude
towards bringing about <b>P</b> but rather
the absence of an attitude towards bringing about <b>P</b>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; font-size: 11.0pt;">In
cases in which the weighing of evidence is relevant, one must have net evidence
in favour of believing or disbelieving in order for either attitude to be
rationally permissible. Believing <b>P</b> is rationally permissible only if
one’s net evidence is in favour of <b>P</b>. Disbelieving <b>P</b> is rationally permissible only if one’s net evidence is against <b>P</b>.
If one lacks any evidence for or against <b>P</b> or if one has equal amounts of evidence both for and against <b>P</b>, then one is rationally obligated to
withhold <b>P</b>. Hence, since the agent
in the second example has equal amounts of evidence both for and
against the truth of the claim that her lorry will run out of petrol, she is rationally obligated to withhold belief. By contrast, she could have no analogous
obligation when it comes to the question of whether she should continue or stop
driving since withholding from both is simply not an option. Hence, even if she has equal amounts of
evidence in favour of continuing to drive and stopping for a break, she still has to do one or the other. Simply put, practical withholding is not an option. The upshot is that, unlike belief, there cannot be a requirement that an agent's net evidence favour a course of action in order for that course of action to be rationally permissible. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-7594301444860306982012-11-29T10:56:00.000+00:002012-11-29T11:01:47.611+00:00Outline of Velleman's "The Guise of the Good"<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">SYNOPSIS</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Velleman argues that the Guise of the Good theory (henceforth, “GG
theory”) errs by either making an evaluative term (henceforth, “the good”) part
of the propositional content of the attitude motivating an intentional action
(henceforth, “a desire”) or by unpacking the claim that desire aims at the good
in terms of desire’s direction of fit. The first strategy fails because it
entails that an agent can have a desire only if she possesses the concept of
the good, and the second strategy fails because it conflates the constitutive
aim of an attitude with its direction of fit. <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">OUTLINE</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-variant: small-caps;">Step 1:</span></b><b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Velleman
conceives of</span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> GG Theory in terms of an attempt to reconcile two seemingly incompatible
stories of the origin of human action; namely, the <i>story of motivation</i> and the <i>story
of rational guidance</i>. (3-5*)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Argument</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">: According to the story
of motivation, </span>an
agent acts intentionally when her action is caused by a desire for some outcome
and a belief that the action will promote it. According to the story of
rational guidance, an agent acts intentionally when the action justifying
character of a proposition prompts her action via her grasp of that
proposition. <span style="background: white;">Noncognitivism emphasizes the story
of motivation at the expense of the story of rational guidance, and cognitivism
emphasizes the story of rational guidance at the expense of the story of
motivation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Upshot:</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> Noncognitivists and
cognitivists differ in terms of which story of the origin of human action they
privilege: motivation and rational guidance, respectively.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-variant: small-caps;">Step 2:</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> Velleman claims that the
main motivation for rejecting noncognitivism and embracing cognitivism is a
desire to preserve the commonsense story of the origin of human action. (5-6)<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Argument</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">: In the commonsense
story, the agent is moved toward action because his reasons justify it; whereas
in the noncognitivist story, her reasons justify her action in virtue of moving
her toward it. Consequently, noncognitivism gets things backwards; it does
violence to the common sense story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Upshot:</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> Those who prefer cogntivism over
noncognitivism are motivated by an attempt to preserve the common sense story. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-variant: small-caps;">Step 3</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">:
Velleman rejects simple cognitivism because it imposes the implausible
requirement that an agent possesses the relevant evaluative concept in order to
have a desire. (6-8)</span><b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b>Argument:</b> According to simple cognitivism, desire
aims at the good in virtue of its propositional content, which includes the
evaluative predicate “good”. This means
that an agent could not have a desire unless she possessed the concept of the
good. However, infants have desires long
before they have the concept of the good, or any other evaluative concepts.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Upshot:</b> Simple cogntivism fails to offer a
plausible account of why desire aims at the good.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-variant: small-caps;">Step 4:</span></b><b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Velleman considers an
alternative to simple cognitivism, dubbed “sophisticated cognitivism”,
according to which desire aims at the good in virtue of its direction of fit.
(8-9)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Argument:</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> According to the
sophisticated cognitivist, cognitive attitudes (like belief) aim at truth
because their propositional object is regarded as a <i>factum</i> (something that is the case), while conative attitudes (like
desire) aim at the good because their propositional object is regarded as a <i>faciendum</i> (something that is to be made
the case). In keeping with this view, a propositional attitude is
characterised, not only by the proposition that embodies its content, but also
by the attitude's direction of fit (i.e., whether it represents its
propositional object as <i>factum</i> or <i>faciendum</i>).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Upshot</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">: According to sophisticated
cognitivism, desire aims at the good because of the way the propositional object
of a desire is grasped; namely, as <i>faciendum</i>.
<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 5:</span></b> Velleman impugns sophisticated cognitivism on the
grounds that it fails to distinguish between an attitude’s direction of fit and
its constitutive aim. (9-15)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Argument: </span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Belief is a cognitive
attitude (i.e., has a certain direction of fit) because it depicts the world as
being a certain way. In this regard, a belief is like other cognitive
attitudes, like imagining and fantasising.
Truth is the constitutive aim of belief because belief depicts the world
as being a certain way with the aim of getting things right (i.e., representing
truly). Thus, saying that belief has a
certain direction of fit is different from saying that it has a certain
constitutive aim.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Upshot:</span></b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> Sophisticated
cognitivism errs when it fails to distinguish between saying that a desire has
a certain direction of fit (i.e., that it is a conative attitude) and saying
that desire aims at the good (i.e., that it has a certain constitutive aim).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 6:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Velleman argues that since desires do not represent its object as <i>faciendum</i>, the good is not the constitutive
aim of desire. (15-21)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Truth is the constitutive aim of belief because belief represents
its propositional object as <i>factum</i>. This is why it is impossible to believe
something under the description of it being false. If desire represents its propositional object
as <i>faciendum</i>, then it should be
impossible to desire something under the description of it being bad. However,
the possibility of perverse desire shows that desire does not represent its
object as <i>faciendum</i>. This follows from the definition of a
perverse desire as desiring something under the description of it being bad or
pointless.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Since it is possible to desire something under the description of
it being bad or pointless the good cannot be the constitutive aim of desire.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">CONCLUSION:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Neither simple nor sophisticated cognitivism successfully show that
desire aims at the good. As such, the central contention of GG theory remains
unestablished. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">*Page numbers based on Velleman,
D. [1992], “The Guise of the Good”, <i>Nous</i>,
<b>26</b> (1): 3-26.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--EndFragment--><br />
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<!--EndFragment-->AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-14519097876789023022012-08-02T17:25:00.001+00:002012-11-29T01:32:15.347+00:00“Eating the Whole Thing”: Philosophy, Science, and Anxiety (David Albert)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-sAJaMQ3PlKQ/UBq38PTiLII/AAAAAAAAAUY/FI4ZmsMb7ZA/s1600/David_Albert.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-sAJaMQ3PlKQ/UBq38PTiLII/AAAAAAAAAUY/FI4ZmsMb7ZA/s1600/David_Albert.jpeg" /></a></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
You can listen to the <a href="http://thebrooklyninstitute.com/">Brooklyn Institute for Social Research</a> podcast featuring David Albert (Columbia University) <a href="http://ec.libsyn.com/p/3/0/6/30664039252f9c3f/Supplemental_Podcast_for_Social_Research_3.mp3?d13a76d516d9dec20c3d276ce028ed5089ab1ce3dae902ea1d01cc843ed3c0547529&c_id=4665375">here</a>.AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-67719946219434378692012-05-17T19:50:00.003+01:002012-05-19T14:05:19.958+01:00Outline of Chisholm’s “The Problem of Criterion”<br />
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<b style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">SYNOPSIS</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="text-align: justify;">:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Roderick Chisholm argues that we can successful arrive at a general
criterion for distinguishing between cases in which we have knowledge and cases
in which we do not if we begin with specific instances in which we clearly have
knowledge, and then generalise from those cases to arrive at the principles of
“good” belief. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">OUTLINE</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
begins by adumbrating Montaigne’s formulation of the problem of criterion
(590*).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We cannot know that our beliefs are true unless we have a
criterion for distinguishing between true or false beliefs. But we cannot know that a given criterion
succeeds at distinguishing between true or false beliefs unless we can check to
see if it yields the right results.
Moreover, we can check to see if a criterion yields the right results
only if we already know which of our beliefs are true and which are false.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: When we attempt to find a criterion of knowledge, we find
ourselves caught in a vicious circle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
describes the dogmatist and the sceptic as occupying opposite extremes on the
continuum of how much we think we can know (590-591).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The dogmatist claims that we can know far more than we actually
can. The sceptic claims that we can know
far less than we probably can. Common
sense suggests that the truth lies somewhere between these two extremes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We know less than the dogmatist claims, but more than the sceptic
claims.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 3</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
considers Cardinal Mercier’s tripartite criterion of truth (591-592).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: A criterion of truth should be
internal: the mind must be able to find sufficient reason within itself to hold
that a proposition is true. A criterion of truth should be objective: it is not
the subjective feeling of certainty, but the objective fact that causes the
feeling that constitutes the reason for holding something true. A criterion of truth should be immediate: If
we are to find a criterion that avoids an infinite regress, then we must find
grounds for assent that presuppose no other.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: A criterion of truth should be
internal, objective and immediate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 4</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
considers Descartes formulation of the problem of criterion (592-593).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Beliefs are like a pile of good and bad apples in which the bad
apples tend to infect the good. We must
therefore get rid of the bad apples; which is to say, the false beliefs. If we
succeed, we would be left with a stock of true beliefs that we can rely on
completely. However, we can only tell
which beliefs are the good ones if we have a method for doing so. But given that there are good and bad
methods, we must first find a method for deciding between good and bad methods.
But in order to do that, we must first have a method for that method, and so
on, ad infinitum. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The attempt to find a method to distinguish between good and bad
beliefs generates an infinite regress.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 5</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
reformulates the problem of criterion in terms of a pair of questions (593-594).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We may distinguish between the questions: (A) What do we know? What
is the extent of our knowledge? and (B) How do we decide whether we know? What
are the criteria of knowledge? If we
knew the answer to (A), we would be able to figure out the answer to (B). Alternatively, if we somehow already knew the
answer to (B), we would be able to figure out the answer to (A). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: There are two possible strategies for successfully answering (A)
and (B).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 6</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
distinguishes between methodist and particularist strategies for solving the
problem of criterion (594-596).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Methodists believe that we already know the answer to (B), and
that we can therefore use (B) to figure out the answer to (A). Particularists believe that we already know the answer to
(A), and that we can use (A) to figure out the answer to (B). The sceptic
claims that we cannot know the answer to (A) unless we first know the answer to
(B), and that we cannot know the answer to (B) until we first know the answer
to (A). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: There are three possible approaches one can take to answering (A)
and (B): the methodist, particularist, or sceptical. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 7</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
sides with the particularist (596-597).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We do not need to apply a
criterion to determine if we know things like this is a hand. There are certain
clear cases of knowledge. We are free to
begin with such cases, and (based on these clear cases) opine what the
criterion for knowledge should be. For
example, if we begin with clear cases of perceptual knowledge, we are led to
embrace the criterion of accepting the testimony of the senses unless we have
some reason to distrust them on a particular occasion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We can solve the problem of
criterion by beginning with particular cases of knowledge and generalising to
formulate a criterion for true belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 8</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm
defines what he takes to be the key concepts in a theory of evidence (597-598).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: A mental state, A, is <i>intrinsically
preferable</i> to another, B, only if anyone who prefers B to A is mistaken in
his preference. A proposition, p, is <i>beyond reasonable doubt</i> only if
believing p is epistemically preferable to withholding belief in P. A proposition, p, is <i>evident</i> for S only if it is beyond reasonable doubt for S. A
proposition, p, is <i>acceptable</i> if
withholding belief in p is not preferable to believing p, and <i>unacceptable</i> if withholding p is
preferable to believing p. A proposition, p, has <i>some presumption in its favour</i> only if believing p is preferable to
believing not-p. A proposition, p, is <i>certain</i>
if there is no other proposition that is epistemically preferable to believing
p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: There are six key concepts
that are relevant to the attempt find a satisfactory criterion of knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 10</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Chisholm attempts to arrive at a criterion for certainty by considering the
“first truths of fact” (598). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> The “first truths of fact” refers to propositions about one’s
mental states at a given time, such as one’s thinking certain thoughts,
entertaining certain beliefs, or being in certain sensory or emotional
states. Such states are
“self-presenting” in that it is necessarily true that if one is in that state
at some time, t, then it is evident to one at that one is in that state at
t. Perceiving that p and remembering
that p are not self-presenting states, but seeming to see that p and seeming to
remember that p are. Moreover, seeming to see that p and seeming to remember
that p is indirect evidence for p. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: If something is self-presenting, then it satisfies the criterion
for certainty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 11</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Chisholm attempts to arrive at a criterion for certainty by considering the
“first truths of reason” (599).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: An axiom is a necessary
proposition, such that one cannot understand it without thereby knowing that it
is true. A proposition is a priori for S
at time t, if one of the following is true at t: (i) the proposition is an
axiom for S at t, or (ii) it is evident to S that the proposition is entailed
by a set of propositions that are axioms for S at t. All a priori propositions are “first truths
of reason”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: If something is an axiom for
one, then it satisfies the criterion for certainty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 12</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Chisholm weighs the merits of the claim that sources of indirect evidence
should be treated as innocent (i.e., reliable) until there is positive grounds
for thinking them guilty (599-600).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> We can begin attempting to articulate principles for a theory of
the indirectly evident by considering the following two claims: (M): If it is
evident to S that she seems to remember that p, then it is beyond reasonable
doubt for S that p, and (P): If it is evident to S that she seems to perceive
that p, then it is evident to S that p.
However, (M) and (P) are too permissive, and a complete epistemology is
needed in order to ad the appropriate qualifications. Nevertheless, (M) and (p) are possible
starting points.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We can, in principle,
arrive at criterion if we paradigm cases of knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 13</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Chisholm acknowledges that he has simply presupposed particularism when
formulating his criterion of knowledge (600).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Given that our options are particularism, methodism, and
scepticism, there is no non-question-begging way of choosing between the
three. However, this does not mean that
the sceptic is right because if we assume particularism, we are able
acknowledge an obvious fact that we are unable to acknowledge if we assume
scepticism; namely, that we do know many things. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We are no less justified in
assuming particularism than any of the other two approaches to the problem of
criterion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 14</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Chisholm maintains that his proposed criterion for knowledge satisfies Cardinal
Mercier’s three requirements (600).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Since Chisholm’s criterion, which relies on self-presenting or
axiomatic propositions as indirect evidence for claims about the world, does
not appeal to any external authority, it satisfies Mercier’s requirement of
being internal. Since Chisholm’s approach allows that a subject may be mistaken
about whether one mental state is preferable to another, it follows that it is
objective. Since Chisholm’s criterion,
if it is adequate, involves principles that are necessarily true, it satisfies
Mercier’s requirement of being immediate.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Chisholm’s criterion of
knowledge satisfies Mercier’s requirements of being internal, objective and
immediate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">CONCLUSION:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">We may successfully arrive at a criterion for knowledge by adopting
a particularist approach which assumes that there are clear cases of knowledge,
and generalises from such cases to arrive at broad principles. The particularist approach Chisholm offers begins
with propositions about which we are certain, and use such propositions as
indirect evidence for propositions, which are thereby placed beyond reasonable
doubt.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><b>DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br />
1. Do you agree with Cardinal Mercier's claim that a criterion of knowledge should be internal, objective, and immediate? Why or why not?<br />
<br />
2. Do you think Chisholm's assumption that there are certain clear cases of knowledge is warranted? Why or why not?<br />
<br />
3. What, according to Chisholm, is the difference between something being evident and something being beyond reasonable doubt? In your opinion, is being beyond reasonable doubt (as the expression is used by Chisholm) sufficient for a belief to be justified? Is it sufficient for a belief to constitute knowledge?<br />
<br />
4. Do you agree with Chisholm's claim that we can be certain about "first truths of fact"? What about "first truths of reason"? Why or why not?<br />
<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 316.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-GB">*Page numbers based on the, <i>Epistemology</i>: <i>Contemporary Readings</i>, anthology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-44051732017502155102012-05-10T22:46:00.002+01:002012-05-19T14:24:16.131+01:00Outline of Peirce’s “The Fixation of Belief”<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">SYNOPSIS</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Charles Sanders Peirce argues that the aim of inquiry is the
fixation of belief, and that the scientific method is the most effective way of
so doing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">OUTLINE</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
begins with a historical sketch of different approaches to the art of reasoning
(109-111*).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The Romans and medievalists took all knowledge to rest on
authority or reason, with the latter also ultimately derived from authority.
Roger Bacon, in the 13<sup>th</sup> century, held that knowledge was derived
from subjective experience, while Francis Bacon, in the <i>Novum Organum</i>, argued that experience must be understood as
something open to verification. The chemist, Lavoisier, initiated a shift away
from the maxim, “read, work, pray and re-read” to a method focused on
manipulation of substances, rather than words. Finally, Darwin employs the
statistical approach used to explain the movements of molecules to explain
biological variation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The conception of what constitutes proper reasoning has varied
over time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
argues that the value of learning the guiding principles of inference is that
they allow us to draw true conclusions from true premises (111-113).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We have a tendency to form beliefs that go beyond what logic would
justify. This is especially true in
domains where our beliefs are not constrained by experience. Hence, what constitutes a valid pattern of
reasoning may fail to correspond with what feels, to us, like the most natural
pattern of reasoning. This provides some
motivation for learning the principles of valid inference.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Patterns of reasoning that ensure true conclusions, given true
premises count as valid irrespective of the feelings or impulses of those who
rely on them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 3</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
imposes a restriction on which guiding principles may be considered
determinants of validity (113).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We may draw a distinction
between guiding principles that are necessarily taken for granted in asking
whether a certain conclusion follows from certain premises and those that are
not implied by that question. With respect to the former, it does not make
sense to inquire into their truth since such an inquiry already requires that such
principles be assumed true. Moreover, so
long as we stick to these principles, we will always arrive at true conclusions
from true premises. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The guiding principles that
determine valid reasoning are those that are presupposed by the very concept of
reasoning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 4</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
draws three points of contrast between belief and doubt that are relevant to
inquiry (114).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Belief and doubt differ (i) in terms of their sensation, (ii) in
that belief guides our desires and actions while doubt only prompts us to take steps
towards its dissolution, and (iii) doubt is an uneasy or dissatisfied state we
wish to change into belief while belief is a calm and satisfactory state we do
not wish to change into some other belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Belief and doubt play different roles in inquiry, with the former
constituting its destination and the latter its driving force.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 5</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
argues that doubt is the driving force behind inquiry and that the settlement
of opinion is the end of inquiry (114-115).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The irritation caused by doubt motivates us to inquire, and
inquiry comes to an end once we arrive at a settled opinion, whether or not
that opinion is true. Truth cannot motivate us because whether or not an opinion
is true always lies outside the mind, and therefore could not affect it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: This falsifies at least three conceptions of proof: (i) the thesis
that inquiry begins with the posing of any question one pleases, (ii) the
thesis that inquiry involves a search for certainty, even with respect to
things that are not actually doubted, and (iii) the thesis that we may continue
to inquire about something that everyone is already convinced about.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 6</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
considers the effectiveness of the “method of tenacity” as means of fixing
belief (115-117).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Often, our instinctive dislike for an undecided state of mind
prompts us to cling to the views we already have. Subjects may also embrace beliefs they find agreeable,
and attempt to shield themselves from considerations that would prompt them to
change their mind. These are examples of the method of tenacity. However, this method of fixing belief often
proves unsuccessful since subjects who are confronted with the competing
opinions of others are often led to revise their own. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The method of tenacity often proves to be ineffectual for fixing
belief. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 7</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
considers the effectiveness of the “method of authority” as a means of fixing
belief (117-118).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The method of authority
represents a shift from a focus on the individual (as with the method of
tenacity) to a focus on a certain community. It involves the imposition or
regulation of the beliefs of a population by social institutions, and has
proven to be more effective at fixing belief than the method of tenacity. However, institutions cannot regulate
opinions on every subject. Moreover, as
subjects come to recognise that members of other societies believe differently,
they are often led to question the beliefs of their own.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The method of authority is
ineffectual as a general means of fixing belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 8</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Peirce
considers the efficacy of the “a priori method” as a means of fixing belief
(118-120).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Although the a priori method is superior, with respect to reason,
than those discussed thus far, the intuitions that underlay the method (like
tastes) tend to vary from time, in step with the intellectual fashions of the
time. Moreover, when it is observed that
people from other cultures have quite different intuitions, this leads many to
question the assumption that their own intuitions are somehow privileged or
right. This, in turn, ultimately gives
rise to doubt.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The a priori method ultimately
proves less than satisfactory as a means of fixing belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 10</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Peirce considers the “scientific method”, and argues that it is most preferred
method (of those discussed) for fixing belief (120-121).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> The scientific method is able to satisfy our doubts because it
bases belief on external rather than human factors. This frees it of the vicissitudes of human
nature. Moreover, the wide reliance on
the scientific method, and its long track record of success, instils
confidence, making the method less likely to give rise to doubt when it is
consistently applied. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The scientific method is the most successful of those considered,
for fixing belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 11</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Peirce outlines what he takes to be the primary contrast between the scientific
method and the others he considers (121).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: There is no wrong way to
employ the methods of tenacity, authority, and a priori reasoning, from the
point of view of the methods themselves.
This is because they all endorse whatever belief a subject already has
about the best way to employ that method.
However, the scientific method, which has an objective standard of what
counts as good reasoning, allows for the possibility that a subject may fail to
reason correctly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The scientific method alone is
able to allow for the possibility of both bad reasoning and good reasoning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 12</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Peirce concedes that the scientific method is not superior to the other methods
of fixing belief in every respect (121-123).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> The a priori method may generate more comfortable conclusions; the
method of authority will always be preferred by institutions to stamp out
inconvenient beliefs and may better facilitate peace and social stability; the
method of tenacity requires a resolute character and is to be admired for its
simplicity and directness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The scientific method is not superior to the others in every
respect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">CONCLUSION:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Although the scientific method is not superior, as a means of fixing
belief, in every respect, it is still worth adopting and defending.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">DISCUSSION QUESTIONS</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">1. What, according to Peirce, is the primary goal of inquiry? Do you
agree? Why or why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">2. Based on what Peirce has to say about the role of doubt in
inquiry, how would he feel about the Cartesian search for certainty?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">3. What is the fundamental hypothesis of the scientific method? Is it consistent with the possibility that we are in the Matrix? Why or why not?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">4. What, according to Peirce, makes the scientific method superior to the other methods of fixing belief? Do you agree? Why or why not?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">*Page numbers based on <i>The Essential Peirce</i> anthology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-87653766767620340642012-04-27T19:46:00.000+00:002012-05-21T15:09:35.475+01:00Outline of Feldman's and Conee's "Internalism Defended"<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">SYNOPSIS</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Richard Feldman and Earl Conee defend the claim that S’s beliefs are
justified only by things that are internal to S’s mental life (henceforth,
J-internalism) against two types of objections: (1) those that claim that there
are some justified beliefs for which there are no internal justifying states,
and (2) those that claim that there are insurmountable difficulties in
specifying the nature of the connection between beliefs and their corresponding
justifying internal states. Feldman and
Conee argue that neither class of objections pose an unanswerable challenge to J-internalism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">OUTLINE</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Feldman
and Conee begin by distinguishing between two types of J-internalism: accessibilism
and mentalism (pp. 1-2*).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Accessibilism holds that the epistemic justification of S’s
beliefs depend solely on factors to which S has reflective access. Mentalism holds that the epistemic
justification of S’s beliefs depend solely on factors that are internal to S’s
mental life. Accessibilism and mentalism are coextensive only if we assume that
S has reflective access to every aspect of her mental life relevant to justification.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: There are at least two broad kinds of J-internalism: accessibilism
and mentalism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee characterise mentalism in terms of a supervenience and a
mental duplicate claim (p. 2).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The supervenience thesis (S) holds that the justification of S’s
beliefs supervene on S’s occurrent and dispositional mental states, events and
conditions. The mental duplicates thesis
(M) holds that if two individuals, S1 and S2, are exactly alike mentally, then
they are exactly alike justificationally.
Since the claim that justification supervenes on mental states entails
that two individuals with the same mental states have the same justification, (S)
entails (M).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Mentalism may be characterised in terms of a supervenience thesis
and a mental duplicates thesis, where the former entails the latter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 3</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Feldman
and Conee argue that mentalism is the preferable characterisation of
J-internalism (pp. 2-3).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: In the philosophy of mind,
internalism is the thesis that the content of S’s attitudes depend solely on
factors internal to the cognitive apparatus of the agent. This is meant to exclude social and
environmental factors as determiners of the content of a subject’s mental
states. In short, mental content
supervenes on a subject’s inner states. Likewise,
mentalism is meant to exclude plainly external factors as determiners of
justification. In short, justification
supervenes on a subject’s mental states.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Mentalism preserves the parallel
between J-internalism and internalism in the philosophy of mind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 4</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Feldman
and Conee consider five examples in which a change or difference in the mental
life of subjects result in a change or difference in justification (pp. 4-5).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: In the first four examples
the justificatory standing of an agent changes depending on what items of
information are within the subject’s ken. In the fifth example, a purely
internal difference decisively determine the subject’s justificatory standing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: While the five examples considered do not establish that
J-internalism is true, they suggest that J-internalism is consistent with our
pre-theoretical intuitions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 5</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Feldman
and Conee distinguish between two broad classes of objections to J-internalism
(p. 5).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> The first class of objections (i.e., those put forward by Alvin
Plantinga and Alvin Goldman) claim that there are some justified beliefs for
which there are no internal justifying states. The second class of objections (i.e.,
those put forward by William Alston and Ernest Sosa) claim that there are
insurmountable difficulties in specifying the nature of the connection between
beliefs and their internal justifying states.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The defender of J-internalism must respond to two broad classes of
objections if the plausibility of her belief is to be maintained.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 6</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee consider Alvin Plantinga’s objections to evidentialist versions
of J-internalism; the thesis that an agent is justified by her evidence (pp.
5-6).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Plantinga maintains that evidence must either be propositional,
sensory, or impulsional. Since any type of evidentialism that held that
evidence constituted by beliefs (i.e., propositional) or experiences (i.e.,
sensory) could not account for mathematical knowledge, J-internalism must also
include evidence that is constituted by a sense of conviction (i.e.,
impulsional). However, since a sense of
conviction accompanies all beliefs, allowing for impulsional evidence would
result in all beliefs being justified.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: There cannot be a plausible account of evidentialism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 7</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee respond to Plantinga’s objection to evidentialism (pp. 6-7).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Feldman and Conee point out that: (1) We often believe things we
find counterintuitive or implausible and disbelieve things we find intuitive
and plausible. So it is not true that all beliefs are accompanied by a sense of
conviction (or at impulsional). (2) Even
if all beliefs were impulsional, there may still be defeaters that outweigh the
impulsional evidence of a given belief, rendering the belief justificationally
impotent. (3) According to some plausible views, we have an aprori insight that
allows us to grasp simple mathematical propositions. This allows us to say that mathematical
beliefs are justified without implying that all beliefs are justified.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Plantinga’s objection to evidentialism fails. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 8</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee consider Alvin Goldman’s objection to J-internalism (p. 7.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman argues that internal
states cannot account for the justification of stored beliefs. At any given time, there are many things we
know that we are not considering. Since we know them, we also believe them, and
the belief in question is justified. But given that the belief in question is
nonocurrent, it could not be justified by a conscious mental state.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: J-internalist are stuck with the
unacceptable result that stored beliefs are not justified, unless some internal
justifier can be found.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 9</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee respond to Goldman’s objection to J-internalism (pp. 7-8)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Feldman and Conee argue that there are occurrent and dispositional
senses of justified, just as there are occurrent and dispositional senses of
belief. Nonoccurrent beliefs may enjoy
dispositional justification. Moreover,
there is no reason why the numerous ordinary justified beliefs a subject is not
consciously considering could not justify her stored beliefs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman’s objection to J-internalism fails.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 10</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee respond to Goldman’s objection to J-internalism based on the
possibility of forgotten evidence (pp. 8-10).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Goldman points out that an agent’s belief may remain justified long
after she has forgotten the original source of justification. However, Feldman and Conee point out that:
(1) the vivacity (or sense of certainty) that accompanies such a memory belief
may provide justification for that belief, and (2) the agent’s justified
beliefs about the reliability of her memory, may also provide her with
justification for a memory belief even after she has forgotten the original
justificatory source of the memory belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The forgotten evidence objection to J-internalism fails.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 11</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee consider William Alston’s objection to J-internalism (p. 11).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Alston argues that if an agent
believes some proposition, P, based on some evidence, E, then E can provide
justification for P only if the agent has the higher-order belief that E
provides justification for P. However, typically,
when we believe some proposition, P, based on some evidence, E, we never actually
stop to consider if E justifiers P.
Consequently, if we buy into this view, then many of the beliefs we
ordinarily take to be justified turn out not to be. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Given that J-internalsim
requires higher-order beliefs about the justificatory efficacy of our evidence,
many beliefs we ordinarily take to be justified turn out not to be.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 12</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee respond to Alston’s objection to J-internalism (pp. 11-13)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: According to the evidentialist account favoured by Feldman and
Conee, possessing the right evidence by itself secures the justification for
the corresponding beliefs, independent of whether or not the agent considers
the justificatory efficacy of said evidence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Alston’s objection to J-internalism fails.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 13</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee consider Ernest Sosa’s objection to J-internalism (p. 13).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Although some experiences directly fit the introspective beliefs
that describe them (such as my experience of a white triangle against a black
background), other experiences do not (such as my experience of a white
25-sided figure against a black background).
This poses the question: why does the experience of a triangle justify
the introspective belief while the experience of a 23-sided figure does not.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: If the J-internalist is unable to explain this difference, then it
remains unclear how, by their lights, any experience may be said to justify a
belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 14</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Feldman and Conee respond to Ernest Sosa’s objection to J-internalism (pp.
13-14).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Feldman and Conee point out that while we have the ability to
perceptually recognise a triangle, we lack the ability to perceptual recognise
a 23-sided figure. However, if we
imagine an agent who had the ability to perceptually recognise the latter, then
that agent’s experience would be able to justify the corresponding
introspective belief. However, since
such an agent would not be internally identical to us, this does not pose a
problem for the claim that agents that are alike internally are alike in terms
of justification.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Sosa’s objection to J-internalism fails.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">CONCLUSION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Given that J-internalism, broadly construed, suffers from no fatal
defects, philosophers may move beyond the debate regarding whether or not
J-internalism is feasible to flushing out a specific, detailed account of
internalist justification.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">*Page numbers based on the <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i> article (Volume 38, Number 1, January 2001)</span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-74815886324678410012012-04-23T18:01:00.001+00:002012-05-19T14:58:38.230+01:00How Monkeys Mirror Human Irrationality<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="302" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/DUd8XA-5HEk?rel=0" width="535"></iframe>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-86200597712233243022012-04-20T01:50:00.006+00:002012-05-19T14:54:58.884+01:00Outline of Nozick's "Knowledge"<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">SYNOPSIS</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Robert Nozick argues that S knows that p if and only if: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">(1) p is true.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB">(2)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">S believes that p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB">(3)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">If p weren’t true, S wouldn’t believe that p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB">(4)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">If p were true, S would believe that p and not-(S believes that
not-p).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">When (3) and (4) hold, S’s belief is said to “track the truth”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">OUTLINE</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick
begins by impugning the standard causal account of knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The causal theory suffers from at least two weakness: (i) It fails
to apply to cases of mathematical and ethical knowledge. (ii) It faces
difficulties in specifying the appropriate type of causal connection. For example, consider the case of an envatted
brain that is caused (via direct electro-chemical stimulation) to have the
belief that it is in a vat. Such a brain would not know it is in a vat even
though the fact that it is envatted is causally connected to the belief that it
is.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We need to replace the causal requirement with a knew condition
for knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick
introduces a third requirement for knowledge which he thinks immunizes it from
Gettier counterexamples.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Suppose S believes that (p):“someone in the office owns a Ford”
based on his belief that Brown owns a Ford, when it is in fact someone else in
the office, Jones, that owns a Ford, and not Brown. S would fail to satisfy the subjunctive
conditional: “If p weren’t true, S wouldn’t
believe that p”, since he would continue to believe (p) even if Jones
did not own a Ford. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We can avoid Gettier counter-examples if we adopt the following subjunctive
conditional as a necessary condition for knowledge: “If p weren’t true, S
wouldn’t believe that p”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 3</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick
claims that the preceding subjunctive conditional illuminates difficulties
relating to the “relevant alternatives” analysis of knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Compare an agent driving
through a country side with only real barns and one driving through a
countryside with mostly fake barns and one real barn. If both formed the true belief
that he was looking at a barn, the relevant alternative analysis suggests that,
given that the latter is unable to rule out the possibility that he is looking
at a fake barn, only the former has knowledge. We can make sense of this by
noting that if the second agent were looking at a fake barn, he would believe
it was real. He therefore fails to
fulfil the preceding subjunctive conditional.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We can make sense of why an
agent lacks knowledge when he is unable to rule out relevant alternatives if we
adopt the following necessary condition for knowledge: “If p weren’t true, S wouldn’t believe that p”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 4</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick
concedes that the preceding subjunctive conditional is not sufficient for
knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Since the envatted brain,
in our previous example, is caused to believe it is in a vat by those who put
it in a vat, it would not believe that it was in a vat if it were not envatted. The envatted brain therefore fulfils the
preceding subjunctive conditional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The subjunctive conditional, “If p weren’t true, S wouldn’t
believe that p”, is not sufficient for knowledge because it does not guarantee
that S’s belief is sensitive to the truth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 5</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick
introduces a second subjunctive conditional in order to make sense of why the
envatted brain does not know it is in a vat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument:</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> If the envatted brain were not electrically stimulated to believe
that it was in a vat by its envatters, it would not believe it was in a vat
even if it remained true that it was in a vat.
Hence, the following counterfactual is not true of the envatted brain:
“If p were true, S would believe that p”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We can accommodate the intuition that the envatted brain lacks
knowledge if we adopt the following necessary condition for knowledge: “If p
were true, S would believe that p”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 6</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB">: </span></b><span lang="EN-GB">Nozick argues that his second subjunctive conditional can handle
Gilbert Harman’s dictator example.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: A newspaper reports, truly, that a dictator has been killed, but
later, falsely, denies the story. Everyone comes to believe the false report,
except for S, who read the original story but failed to learn about the
retraction. Given the assumption that S
would have believed the false report had he read it, Harman claims that S does
not know that the dictator has been killed. Nozick’s second subjunctive conditional
is able to preserve this intuition: Since S would have believed the false report,
it is not the case that if it were true that the dictator was killed, S would
believe that the dictator was killed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick’s second subjunctive
conditional allows us to preserve the intuition that the subject in Harman’s
dictator example lacks knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 7</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick
observes that the sceptic may be seen as denying that we fulfil Nozick’s first
subjunctive conditional. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: If we were all envatted brains or deceived by an evil demon, we
would continue to believe as we do.
Thus, the sceptic may argue that one of the following two claims is true
of us: “If p were false, we wouldn’t believe that p” or “If p were false, we
might believe that p”. Either would entail that we fail to satisfy the following
subjunctive conditional: “If p were false, S wouldn’t believe that p.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: According to the sceptic, we do not have knowledge because we fail
to satisfy Nozick’s first subjunctive conditional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 8: </span></b><span lang="EN-GB">Nozick
maintains that sceptical scenarios (henceforth, SK) are not in the not-p
neighbourhood of the actual world, and therefore do not prevent us from
satisfying his first subjunctive conditional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Even if p were false, it would not be true that SK. This is because there are no not-p worlds, in
the neighbourhood of the actual world, where SK obtains. Consequently, the fact
that S would continue to believe p if SK obtained, does not prevent S from
fulfilling the subjunctive conditional, “If p were false, S wouldn’t believe
that p”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Sceptical scenarios do not prevent us from satisfying Nozick’s
first subjunctive conditional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step
9</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Nozick concedes that the sceptic is right when
she insists that we do not know that not-SK.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Given that Nozick’s first subjunctive conditional is necessary for
knowledge, S can know that he is not a brain in a vat only if the following
were true: If S were a brain in a vat, he would not believe he was not a brain
in a vat. However, since S would still
believe he was not a brain in a vat even if he were a brain in a vat, his
belief does not satisfy Nozick’s first subjunctive conditional. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Given that we would believe that we were not brains in a vat even
if we were, we do not know that we are not brains in a vat. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 10</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Nozick argues that acknowledging that the sceptic is right when she says that we
do not know not-SK does note entail that we do not know things that entail the
denial of SK. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: It does not follow that if S knows that p: “I am awake and sitting
in a chair in Jerusalem” and knows that p logically implies q: “I am not a
brain in a tank at Alpha Centuri”, that S knows q. This is because the fact
that S’s belief that p co-varies with the truth of p, does not mean that, in
cases in which S knows that p logical implies q, S’s belief that q also co-varies
with the truth of q. Hence, knowledge,
which requires the co-variation of the fact that p and the belief that p, is
not closed under known logical implication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The sceptic’s challenge that I do not know that I am awake and
sitting in Jerusalem because I do not know that I am not a brain in a tank,
which presupposes that knowledge is closed under known logical implication, misses
its mark. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">CONCLUSION</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Nozick concludes that a belief counts as knowledge only if it tracks
the truth. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">DISCUSSION QUESTION</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">1. Is Nozick’s truth-tracking account simply a version of the causal
theory of knowledge? Why or why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">2. What does it mean to say that knowledge is closed under known
logical entailment? Why does Nozick
think that this view of knowledge is mistaken? Do you agree with Nozick? Why or
why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">3. Does Nozick hold that the sceptic is mistaken when she insists
that we do not know that we are not brains in a tank at Alpha Centauri? Why or why not? Do you agree? Why or why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">4. Does Nozick hold that the sceptic is mistaken when she insists
that, given that I do not know that I am not a brain in a tank, I do not know
that I am currently sitting and reading a book? Why or why not? Do you think
Nozick’s argument succeeds? Why or why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-61857625673386718512012-04-10T22:06:00.005+00:002012-05-21T15:16:29.578+01:00Outline of Goldman's "A Casual Theory of Knowing"<div style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">SYNOPSIS</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Alvin Goldman argues that S knows that p, where p is an empirical
proposition, if and only if the fact that p is causally connected in an
“appropriate” way with S’s believing p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">OUTLINE</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman
hypothesises that what goes wrong in Gettier examples—i.e., cases in which S
allegedly has a justified true belief that p but does not know that p—is that there is a lack of a causal connection
between S’s believing that p and the fact that p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: In Gettier’s second example, in which Smith comes to believe the
disjunction “Either Jones owns a Ford or Brown is in Barcelona” based on the
false belief that “Jones owns a Ford”, the fact that makes the disjunction true
(viz., Brown is in Barcelona) is not causally connected to Smith’s believing
the disjunction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We must add the requirement of causal connection between the fact
that p and S’s believing that p to the traditional analysis to avoid Gettier’s
objections.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman
begins an examination of different cases of empirical knowledge with knowledge
based on perception.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Suppose that there is a vase before S which is being obscured from
S’s view by a laser photograph of a different vase and that S comes to believe
that there is a vase before him based on the photograph. In such a case, according to Goldman, S does
not count as seeing the vase since there is no causal connection between the
real vase and S’s belief that there is a vase.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Our ordinary concept of sight (i.e., knowledge acquired by sight)
includes a causal requirement. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 3</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman
continues his examination of different cases of empirical knowledge with
knowledge based on memory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Neither (i) believing (or
knowing) a fact as some time t0 and then believing (or knowing) it at a later
time t1, nor (ii) having the impression of remembering (e.g., having one’s
brain artificially stimulated to produce a memory impression) are sufficient for
remembering (or knowledge based on memory). We must add a causal connection
between the earlier and later case of believing (or knowing) in order for it to
count as a case or remembering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: A causal connection between an
earlier belief (or knowledge) that p and a later belief (or knowledge) that p
is a necessary ingredient in memory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 4</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman
continues his examination of different cases of empirical knowledge with knowledge
based on inference.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman contrasts the case in which an eruption leaves lava on the
countryside which remains in place until someone, S, perceives it and the case
in which the lava is removed and then (centuries later) someone else (unaware
of the real volcano) places lava on the country side to make it look as if
there had been an eruption. If, in the
latter case, S comes to perceive the latter, and then infers that there was an
eruption, S would not count as knowing that there is an eruption. This is because the eruption is not causally
connected to S’s belief that there was an eruption.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: A necessary condition of S having inferential knowledge that p is
that his believing that p be connected with the fact that p by a causal chain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 5</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Goldman concludes his examination of different cases of empirical knowledge
with knowledge based on testimony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Cases of knowledge based on testimony begin with the fact that p
causing a subject, T, to believe that p and subsequently assert that p, which
eventually leads to another subject, S, believing that p based on T’s assertion.
Here, as before, there must be a causal chain connecting the fact that p to S’s
believing that p in order for the belief to count as knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: There is a causal requirement for knowledge based on testimony.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 6</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB">: </span></b><span lang="EN-GB">Goldman concedes that the requirement that S knows that p only if
the fact that p caused S’s belief that p is too strong.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Assuming that we can know facts about the future, and precluding
the possibility of backward causation, S’s belief that p cannot always be
caused by the fact that p in order for S to know that p. Moreover, I may come to know that there was
smoke coming out of my chimney last night based on an inference from the fact
that there was a fire in my fireplace last night, even though the smoke is not
the cause of the fire in my fireplace.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: We must weaken the requirement that there be a causal connection
between the fact that p and S’s belief that p to include cases in which the
fact that p and S’s belief that p share a common cause.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 7</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Goldman considers John Saunder’s and Narayan Champawat’s counterexample to
Michael Clark’s analysis of knowledge. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Suppose that Smith forms the belief that “Jones owns a Ford” based
on the testimony of Brown, who is generally reliable. However, (unknown to Brown or Smith) Jones actually
sold his Ford the day before and bought a Volkswagon. Jones subsequently wins a Ford in raffle,
making Smith’s belief true. Although
Smith’s belief is true and fully grounded (i.e., all his grounds are true) he
still does not know that Jones owns a Ford.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Clark’s requirement that a belief be fully grounded fails to
provide a sufficient condition for knowledge due to the lack of a causal
connection between Smith’s belief and the fact believed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 8: </span></b><span lang="EN-GB">Goldman
considers Keith Lehrer’s counterexample to Clark’s analysis of knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Suppose that Smith forms the belief that “Someone in the office
owns a Ford” based on an inference from his belief that Jones owns a Ford and his
belief that Brown owns a Ford, both of whom are in his office. However, since Brown does not own a Ford, one
of Smith’s grounding beliefs is false. However, Smith still knows that someone
in the office owns a Ford even though his grounds include a false belief.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Clark’s requirement that a belief be fully grounded is not
necessary for knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step
9</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Goldman maintains that “causal chains” may
include, not only admixtures of causes and inferences, but also causes and logical
connections.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: Smith forms the belief that (p), “Someone in the office owns a
Ford”, based on the conjunction of the belief that (q) “Jones owns a Ford” and (r) “Jones works in his office”. Given that (q) and (r) logically entail (p),
and given that (q) and (r) combine to cause Smith’s belief that (p), it follows that there is a causal connection
between the fact that (p) and Smith’s believing that (p).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: If X and Y are logically related, and Y is a cause of Z, then X
also counts as a cause of Z.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-variant: small-caps;">Step 10</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:
Goldman argues that since his causal analysis of knowledge does not require
that a knower be able to justify or provide evidence in favour of the
proposition known it is able to account for cases of knowledge that the
traditional analysis excludes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Argument</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: S may know that Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 based on a
warranted inference from an Encyclopaedia entry even after S has forgotten how
he came to learn this fact, so long as there is a causal connection between S’s
belief and the fact that Lincoln was born in 1809.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">Upshot</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: The justification requirement of the traditional analysis is not
necessary for knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">CONCLUSION</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Goldman concludes that S knows that p just in case the fact that p
is casually connected in an “appropriate” way with S’s believing that p, where
“appropriate” causal processes include: perception, memory, inferences (in
which a proposition counts as warrant-providing only if it is true), or some
combination of the aforementioned. Goldman concedes that the preceding causal
analysis is not part of the meaning of the expression “S knows p”. However, he maintains that it specifies the
necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB">DISCUSSION QUESTION</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">1. Do you agree that the agent in Goldman’s volcano example does not
have knowledge? Why or why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">2. What does Goldman mean when he says that S knows that p only if
S’s believing that p is causally connected to the fact that p? What are the
implications of this view for knowledge about the future?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">3. Do you agree that S knows that p only if S’s believing that p is
causally connected (in Goldman’s sense) to the fact that p? Why or why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">4. Does Goldman’s analysis of knowledge successfully avoid
Gettier-style counterexamples? Why or why not?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-79992353769206805872012-04-03T13:57:00.006+00:002012-04-04T13:44:26.565+00:00Outline of Clark's "Knowledge and Grounds"<div style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span><b style="font-size: 100%;">SYNOPSIS</b><span style="font-size:100%;">:</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span><span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Michael Clark argues that the necessary and sufficient conditions for S knowing that p are:</span></div></span><span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">(1) p is true,</span></div></span><span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">(2) S believes that p,</span></div></span><span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">(3) S is justified in believing that p, and </span></div></span><span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">(4) S’s belief that p is fully grounded.</span></div></span></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><b style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><b style="font-size: 100%;">OUTLINE</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;">:</span></span></span></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">STEP 1</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Clark observes that Gettier’s examples are stronger than they need to be since he presents cases in which an agent’s grounds for a belief deductively entail the proposition believed, whereas there may also be Gettier-type cases involving non-deductive grounds.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Example</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Suppose that Smith forms the true belief that Jones owns a Ford based on the testimony of Brown, who is typically reliable, but who (on the present occasion) has mixed up Jones with someone else. Although Smith’s belief (based on Brown’s testimony) is true and justified, it fails to constitute knowledge because it rests on false grounds. Insofar as Brown’s testimony constitutes non-deductive grounds for believing that Jones owns a Ford, this is a Gettier-style example involving non-deductive grounds.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Upshots:</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"> (i) Insofar as Brown’s testimony constitutes non-deductive grounds for Smith’s belief, Gettier-style examples are effective within a non-deductive context. (ii) S knows that p only if her belief that p is not based on false grounds.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">STEP 2</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Clark argues that adding the fourth condition that an agent’s belief be based on true grounds is still insufficient for knowledge.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Example</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Suppose that Smith forms the true belief that Jones owns a Ford based on the testimony of Brown, who is typically reliable, but who (on the present occasion) is simply making up a claim that (unknown to Brown) happens to be true. Although Smith’s belief is true, justified, and rests on true grounds (i.e., Brown’s claim that Jones owns a Ford), it still fails to constitute knowledge. Thus, we have a Gettier-style example involving true grounds.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Upshot</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Although Smith’s belief is based on true grounds, Smith lacks knowledge because the grounds on which he accepts these true grounds, viz. that Brown knows them, are false. </span></span></div></span> </span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">STEP 3</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Clark claims that if we keep inquiring about someone’s grounds for accepting certain grounds, and the grounds for accepting those grounds, and so on, we eventually come to a place where it would be inappropriate to ask for further grounds.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Example</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>A series of questions posed to Smith about why he believes Jones owns a Ford will eventually culminate in an answer, which we would deem out of order to question further. </span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Upshot:</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"> There is always some finite list of grounds that can be offered for a belief.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">STEP 4</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Clark posits that if one of the grounds in the chain of supporting grounds for a certain belief is false, then that belief fails to constitute knowledge.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Example</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>If any of the beliefs in the chain of Smith’s grounds for believing Jones owns a Ford are false, we may deny that Smith has knowledge. If all the beliefs in the chain are true, then Smith’s belief that Jones owns a Ford is fully grounded.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;font-size:100%;" ><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%;">Upshot</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>: </b>Being fully grounded is a necessary condition for a belief to constitute knowledge.</span></span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><b style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><b style="font-size: 100%;">CONCLUSION</b><span><span style="font-size:100%;">:</span></span></span></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Clark concludes that if we add the requirement that S’s belief that p be fully grounded to the requirement that p be true, S believe that p, and S’s belief that p be justified, we arrive at conditions that are jointly sufficient for knowledge. </span></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><b style="font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><b style="font-size: 100%;">DISCUSSION QUESTION</b><span style="font-weight: normal;font-size:100%;" >:</span></span></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><br /></span></div><span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">1. Is Clark’s analysis of knowledge a successful response to Gettier-style counterexamples? If not, can you recommend any changes that would improve Clark's account?<br /></span></div></span>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-55108185281664459722012-04-02T21:21:00.012+00:002012-04-03T02:34:10.732+00:0014th Annual Rocky Mountain Philosophy Conference<div style="font-size: 100%; font-weight: normal; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><div style="text-align: center; "><span></span></div></div><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; "><div style="text-align: center; "><span></span></div></span><span style="font-weight: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large; ">University of Colorado at Boulder</span></div></span><div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center; "><span style="font-size: large; ">April 20 and 21, 2012</span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center; "><span style="font-size: large; "><br /></span></div><div style="font-size: 100%; "><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center; "><span style="font-size: large; "></span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; ">KEYNOTE PRESENTATIONS:</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><br /></div><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;">Keynote 1: <b>Jerry Fodor</b></div><div style="text-align: center;">Rutgers University</div></span><div style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-weight: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">“From the Darwin Wars”</span></div></span><div><div style="text-align: center;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Friday, April 20, at 6:15 PM</span></div><span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">Benson Earth Sciences Room 180</span></div></span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-size: 100%; ">Abstract</b><span style="font-size: 100%; ">: This talk will argue that, despite what his followers have often claimed, Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection does not (in fact, couldn’t) provide a viable account </span><span style="font-size: 100%; ">of the mechanism of the evolution of species-phenotypes. </span><span style="font-size: 100%; ">The argument is logical/philosophical; it requires empirical premises, but none of them are in dispute. No religious </span><span style="font-size: 100%; ">or theological theses will be presented or presupposed.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div></div><span style="font-size: 100%; font-weight: normal; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><br /><div style="text-align: center; "><span>Keynote 2: </span><b>Russ Shafer-Landau</b></div><div style="font-size: 100%; text-align: center; ">University of Wisconsin, Madison</div></span><div style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;">“The Darwinian Argument”</div></span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; font-style: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;"><span><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><div style="text-align: center;">Saturday, April 21, at 11:15 AM</div><span><div style="text-align: center;">Humanities Room 150</div></span></span></div><div style="font-size: 100%; "><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: justify; "><span><br /></span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><b>Abstract:</b> I reconstruct a master argument that tries to reveal the essential commitments of those who would argue that moral knowledge is impossible, once we become aware of the evolutionary origins of our moral beliefs. At the heart of the debunking strategies is a common claim: given the influence of selective pressures on our moral <span>faculties, it would be a massive coincidence were they reliable. I explore a variety of ways in which this sort of coincidence can be understood, and argue that none of these ways supports moral skepticism.</span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span><br /></span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify; "><span><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; "><span></span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center; "><span style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 100%; ">Keynote 3: </span><span style="font-size: 100%; "><b>Kit Fine</b></span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center; "><span style="font-size: 100%; ">New York University</span></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; "></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; ">“Truthmaker Semantics”</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; ">Saturday, April 21, at 4:45 PM</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; ">Humanities Room 150</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: center; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><b>Abstract:</b> This talk will outline an alternative to possible worlds semantics.</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">CONFERENCE SCHEDULE:</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><b>Friday, 20 April</b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><b><br /></b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Keynote 1: <b>Jerry Fodor</b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">6:15 PM - 7:45 PM — Benson Room 180</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><b>Saturday, 21 April</b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><b><br /></b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; "><i>Session A: 9:00 AM - 9:50 AM</i></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">A1. <b>Matthew Leonard</b>, Univ. California, Davis</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">“Mirror Realism”</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Ben Rohrs</b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room 135 </div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">A2. <b>Alexander Stathopoulos</b>, U. of St. Andrews</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">“A Deflationary View of Peer Disagreement”</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Dan Lowe</b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room 150</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; "><i>Session B: 10:00 AM - 10:50 AM</i></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">B1. <b>Avery Archer</b>, Columbia University</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">“Competing Aims: Vellman vs. The Guise of the Good”</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Benjamin Kultgen</b>, </div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room 135</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">B2. <b>Julia Neufeld</b>, Northern Illinois University </div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">“Conditionals of Freedom, Truth and Grounding, Necessity”</div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Jason Hanschmann</b>, </div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room, 150</div></div><div style="font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; "><div style="font-style: normal; ">Keynote 2: <b>Russ Shafer-Landau</b></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">11:15 AM - 12:45 AM — Humanities Room 150</div><div style="font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Lunch: 12:45 PM - 2:30 PM </div><div style="font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div><i>Session C 2:30 PM - 3:20 PM</i></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">C1. <b>Matthew Lee</b>, University of Notre Dame</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">“Are Credences Reducible to Probabilistic Beliefs?”</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Rebecca Chan</b></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room 135</div><div style="font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">C2. <b>Tyler Paytas</b>, Washington Univ. St. Louis</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">“You Really Ought to Use a Cleaver to Kill Jones: The Under-Specification of Practical Oughts”</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Spencer Case</b></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room 150</div><div style="font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div><i>Session D 3:30 PM - 4:20 PM</i></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">D1.<b> Andy Yu</b>, University of Oxford</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">“The Truth about the Necessity and existence <span style="font-size: 100%; ">of Williamson’s Necessary Existents”</span></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Noel Saenz</b></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room 135</div><div style="font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">D2. <b>Samuel Taylor</b>, University of Iowa</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">“What Seemings Seem to Be”</div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Commenter: <b>Jon Spelman</b></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Humanities Room 150</div><div style="font-style: normal; "><br /></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">Keynote 3: <b>Kit Fine</b></div><div style="font-style: normal; ">4:45 PM - 6:15 PM — Humanities Room 150</div></div></span></div></div></div></div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-44903567888560236752012-03-27T20:34:00.003+00:002012-03-27T20:43:05.000+00:00Outline of Gettier’s “Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?”<span ><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; ">SYNOPSIS</b><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">:</span></span><br /><br /></span><div style="text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; " >Gettier argues that the tripartite conception of knowledge—according to which an agent, S, counts as knowing that p just in case (i) P is true, (ii) S believes that p and (iii) S is justified in believing that p—provides us with an insufficient basis for knowledge.</span></div><span ><br /><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; "><br /></b></span><div><span ><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; ">OUTLINE</b><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">:</span></span><br /><br /><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; ">STEP 1</b><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">: Gettier describes himself as setting out to impugn the following three closely-related conceptual analyses of knowledge:</span></span><br /><br /><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(a) S knows that P</span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">IFF</span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(i) P is true,</span></span><br /><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(ii) S believes that P, and</span></span><br /><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(iii) S is justified in believing that P.</span></span><br /><br /><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(b) S knows that P</span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">IFF </span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(i) P is true,</span></span><br /><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(ii) S accepts P, and</span></span><br /><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(iii) S has adequate evidence for P.</span></span><br /><br /><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(c) S knows that P</span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">IFF </span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(i) P is true,</span></span><br /><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(ii) S is sure that P, and</span></span><br /><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; white-space: pre; "> </span><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">(iii) S has the right to be sure that P.</span></span><br /><br /><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-style: normal; ">Step 2</b><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">: Gettier introduces two cases that he believes represent counterexamples to (a), (b), and (c).</span></span><br /><br /></span><div style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span ><span style="font-size: 100%; "><i>Case I</i></span><span style="font-size: 100%; ">: Smith has the justified true belief that: “the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket”, but his belief is based on the premise that Jones, who has ten coins in his pocket, will get the job, when in fact it is Smith who will get the job and who also (unwittingly) has ten coins in his pocket.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify; "><span ><br /></span></div><span ><span style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-weight: normal; "><div style="text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; "><i>Case II</i></span><span><span style="font-size: 100%; ">: Smith has the justified true belief that: “Either Jones owns a Ford, or Brown is in Barcelona”, but his belief is based on the premise that the aforementioned disjunction is made true by the fact that Jones owns a ford, when in fact Jones does not own a ford but it so happens that (unbeknownst to Smith) Brown is in Barcelona. </span></span></div></span><br /><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; "><br /></b></span><div><span ><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; ">CONCLUSION</b><span><span style="font-size: 100%;">:</span></span><br /><br /></span><div style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; " >Insofar as the subject in Gettier’s examples, Smith, has a belief that is justified, supported by adequate evidence or has the right to be sure, Case I and Case II represent counterexamples to (a), (b) and (c), respectively.</span></div><span ><br /><br /><b style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; ">DISCUSSION QUESTIONS</b><span style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-weight: normal; ">:<br /><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 100%; ">1. Do you share the intuition that the subject in Gettier's examples, Smith, does not have knowledge?</span></div></span></span><div><div style="text-align: justify; "><span ><br /></span></div><span style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: normal; line-height: normal; font-weight: normal; "><div style="text-align: justify; "><span style="font-size: 100%; " >2. Does the subject in Gettier’s examples, Smith, have the right to be sure? What would Ayer say about Smith’s reasoning?</span></div></span></div></div></div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3949761534200395390.post-43560530089951508112012-03-22T19:29:00.006+00:002012-03-23T02:58:18.192+00:00Outline of Ayer’s “Knowing as Having the Right to be Sure”<b>SYNOPSIS:</b><br /><br />A. J. Ayer argues that the necessary and sufficient conditions for S knowing that p are:<div><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>(1) p is true.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>(2) S is sure that p.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: 100%; "><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>(3) S has the right to be sure that p.</span></div><div><br /><br /><b>OUTLINE:</b><br /><br /><b>STEP 1</b>: Ayer begins by noting that it is not a sufficient condition for S to know that p that (i) S is sure that p, and (ii) p is true. The source of S’s belief that p must be generally reliable.<br /><br /><b>Example</b>: A superstitious person who is sure that he will suffer misfortune for walking under a ladder, who happens to be right, still does not know that he will suffer misfortune. This is because his superstitious belief about ladders is not generally reliable.<br /><br /><b>Upshot</b>: S knows that p only if her belief that p is formed via a generally reliable process (of reasoning).<br /><br /><b>STEP 2</b>: Ayer considers whether we can arrive at the standards of knowledge by determining what would be a satisfactory answer to the question: How do you know? He opines that one’s answer to this question is only satisfactory if the source of knowledge is reliable in the particular case.<br /><br /><b>Examples</b>: If my eyesight is bad or my memory is poor, they may fail to provide an adequate basis for knowledge, even if I turn out to be right. However, attempting to list the conditions under which perception, memory, testimony etc. are reliable may be a moribund affair.<br /><br /><b>Upshot</b>: Determining if S’s belief is formed via a reliable process may have to be determined on a case by case basis.<br /> <br /><b>STEP 3</b>: Ayer suggests that reliability may be sufficient for knowledge even when an answer to the question, “How do you know?” is not available. The most salient question seems to be whether or not one has the right to be sure.<br /><br /><b>Example</b>: A man who is reliable at predicting lottery results may be credited with knowledge if his run of success is sufficiently impressive.<br /><br /><b>Upshot</b>: Whether S knows that p depends, not on her inner states or on whether she arrived at her belief by an accredited route to knowledge, but on whether S is reliable enough for us to concede that she has the right to be sure.<br /><br /><b>STEP 4</b>: Ayer suggests that debates about whether or not it possible to know that p are actually debates about whether or not one ever has the right to be sure that p.<br /><br /><b>Example</b>: The sceptic about knowledge is not trying to get us to revise the meaning or use of the verb “to know” but rather is denying that we have the right to be sure.<br /><br /><b>Upshot</b>: Arriving at a definition of knowledge does not settle the question of whether it possible to have it since whether or not we have the right to be sure remains open to debate.<br /><br /><br /><b>CONCLUSION</b>:<br /><br />The central problem confronting contemporary epistemologist is not trying to figure out the necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge, but rather trying to determine if and when one necessary condition in particular has been met; namely, if and when we have the right to be sure.<br /><br /><br /><b>DISCUSSION QUESTION</b>:<br /><br />By Ayer’s lights, who decides if S has the right to be sure that p? Do you agree? Why or why not?</div>AVERY ARCHERhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14313322464414110953noreply@blogger.com5